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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuse_of_human_excreta

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Reuse of human excreta

人類排泄物的再利用

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海地收穫用人類排泄物製成的堆肥種植的辣椒

人類排泄物的再利用 是指在採用針對預期再利用應用應用客製化的適當處理步驟和風險管理方法後，對經過處理的人類排泄物進行安全、有益的利用。經處理的排泄物的有益用途可集中於利用經處理的排泄物中所含的植物可利用的養分（主要是氮、磷和鉀）。它們還可以利用排泄物中含有的有機物和能量。在較小程度上，排泄物中的水分也可能被再利用，儘管這更廣為人知的是從城市廢水中回收水。養分含量的預期再利用應用可能包括：農業或園藝活動中的土壤改良劑或肥料。其他再利用應用更著重於排泄物的有機物含量，包括用作燃料源或沼氣形式的能源。

有大量且不斷增加的處理方案可以使排泄物安全且易於管理，以實現預期的再利用。[1]選項包括尿液分流和糞便脫水（尿液分流旱廁）、堆肥（堆肥廁所或外部堆肥）、污水污泥處理技術和一系列糞便污泥處理流程。它們都實現了不同程度的病原體去除和水含量降低，以便於處理。值得關注的病原體是腸道細菌、病毒、原生動物和糞便中的寄生蟲。[2]其他需要考慮的健康風險和環境污染方麵包括微污染物、藥物殘留物和硝酸鹽在環境中的擴散，這可能會導致地下水污染，這可能會影響飲用水品質標準。

有幾種“人類排泄物衍生肥料”，其性質和施肥特性各不相同，例如：尿液、乾糞便、堆肥糞便、糞便污泥、污水、污水污泥。

幾個世紀以來，人類排泄物或生活廢水（污水）中所含的營養物質和有機物一直被用於農業。然而，這種做法在發展中國家往往以不受監管和不安全的方式進行。世界衛生組織 2006 年的指導方針建立了一個框架，描述如何透過遵循「多重屏障方法」安全地進行這種再利用。[3]

術語

人類排泄物、糞便污泥和廢水通常被稱為廢棄物。[4]衛生處理系統的最終輸出可稱為「再利用產品」或「其他輸出」。[4]這些再利用產品是一般肥料、土壤改良劑、生物質、水或能源。

人類排泄物的再利用關注的是人類排泄物的營養成分和有機物含量，而再生水則關注的是水份含量。

另一個術語是“人類排泄物的利用”而不是“再利用”，嚴格來說，這是人類排泄物的“第一次”“使用”，而不是第二次使用。[3]

技術和方法

 
英國漢普郡的一個污水處理場

廢水和人類排泄物中的可用資源，包括水、植物養分、有機物。旨在安全有效地回收資源的衛生系統可以在社區的整體資源管理中發揮重要作用。

回收糞便和廢水中的資源（如營養物、水和能源）有助於實現永續發展目標 6 和其他永續發展目標。[5]

將廢水和人類排泄物與其他可生物降解的廢物（例如糞便、食物和農作物廢物）結合起來可以有效地實現資源回收。[6]

處理選項

有大量且不斷增加的處理方案可以使排泄物安全且易於管理，以實現預期的再利用。[1] 從單一農村家庭到城市，各種技術和實踐都可以用來獲取潛在的寶貴資源，並將其用於安全、生產性用途，從而支持人類福祉和更廣泛的可持續性。以下列出了一些治療方案，但還有更多：[1]

瑞典農業科學大學的指南提供了一系列衛生資源回收處理技術：蚯蚓堆肥、黑水虻堆肥、藻類培養、微生物燃料電池、尿液硝化和蒸餾、鳥糞石沉澱、焚燒、碳化、太陽能乾燥、薄膜、過濾器、尿液鹼脫水、氨消毒/尿素處理和石灰消毒。[7][8] [4]進一步的研究涉及紫外線高級氧化過程，以便在再利用之前降解尿液中存在的有機污染物或使用酸使尿液脫水。[9][10]

重複利用選項

排泄物最常見的再利用是在農業中用作肥料和土壤改良劑。這也被稱為農業衛生的「閉環」方法。這是生態衛生方法的一個核心面向。

再利用選項取決於再利用的排泄物的形式：可以是排泄物本身，也可以是與一些水混合的排泄物（糞便污泥）或與大量水（生活廢水或污水）混合。[11]

最常見的排泄物再利用類型包括：[6]

  • 農業、園藝中的肥料、灌溉水：例如將再生水用於灌溉；使用堆肥的排泄物（和其他有機廢棄物）或經過適當處理的生物固體作為有機肥料和土壤改良劑；使用經過處理的分源尿液作為肥料。
  • 能源：例如消化糞便和其他有機廢物以產生沼氣；生產可燃燃料。
  • 其他：其他新興的排泄物再利用方案包括使用黑水虻幼蟲生產牲畜蛋白質飼料，回收有機物用作建築材料或用於造紙。

糞便污泥的資源回收可以採取多種形式，包括作為燃料、土壤改良劑、建築材料、蛋白質、動物飼料和灌溉用水。[11]

可從衛生系統回收的再利用產品包括：儲存的尿液、濃縮尿液、消毒的廢水、沼渣、營養液、乾尿、鳥糞石、乾糞、坑式廁所|坑式腐植質、脫水污泥、堆肥、灰燼。[4]

作為肥料

與其他肥料的比較

更多信息：肥料和有機肥料

人類排泄物中蘊藏著未開發的肥料資源。例如，在非洲，從人類排泄物中回收的營養物質的理論數量與該大陸目前使用的所有肥料相當。糧食產量，並提供化肥的替代品，而化肥往往是小農負擔不起的。然而，人類排泄物的營養價值很大程度取決於飲食輸入。[2]

礦物肥料由採礦活動製成，可能含有重金屬。磷礦中含有鎘、鈾等重金屬，可經由礦物磷肥進入食物鏈。[12]這不適用於以排泄物為基礎的肥料（除非人類食物的污染一開始就超出了安全限度），這是一個優勢。

有機肥料的施肥元素大部分結合在碳質還原化合物中。如果這些肥料已經部分氧化（如堆肥中），則施肥礦物質會吸附在降解產物（腐植酸）等。浸出速度較慢。[13][14]

尿

尿液含有大量的氮（主要為尿素），以及鉀。[15]尿液中的營養濃度會隨飲食而改變。[16]特別是，尿液中的氮含量與飲食中的蛋白質含​​量有關：高蛋白質飲食會導致尿液中尿素含量較高。尿液中的氮含量與人類飲食中的食物總蛋白成正比，磷含量與食物總蛋白和植物性食物蛋白之和成正比。[17]尿液的八種主要離子（> 0.1 meq L−1）是陽離子、鈉、鉀、銨、鈣和陰離子、氯、硫酸鹽、磷酸鹽和碳酸氫鹽。[18] 尿液通常含有污水中 70% 的氮和一半以上的鉀，但只佔總體積的不到 1%。[15]成人每天產生的尿液量約為0.8至1.5公升。[3]

尿肥通常用水稀釋後施用，因為未稀釋的尿液會造成肥料燒傷，植物的葉子或根造成損傷，[19] 特別是當土壤濕度較低時。稀釋也有助於減少使用後產生的氣味。當用水稀釋時（對於每個季節使用新鮮生長介質的容器種植一年生植物，按1:5 的比例進行稀釋，或者對於更一般的用途，按1:8 的比例），它可以直接施用於土壤，如一種肥料。[20][21] 研究發現尿液的施肥效果與商業氮肥相當。[22][23] 尿液可能含有藥物殘留。[24]污水污泥中常見的重金屬如鉛、汞和鎘在尿液中的濃度要低得多。[25]

隨尿液排出的營養物質的典型設計值為：每人每年 4 公斤氮、每人每年 0.36 公斤磷和每人每年 1.0 公斤鉀。[17] 根據每天1.5L尿液（或每年550L）的尿液量，大量營養素的濃度值如下：7.3 g/L N; .67 g/L P; 1.8 g/L K.[17][26]這些是預設值，實際值因飲食而異。[15]尿液的養分含量，以國際肥料慣例 N:P2O5:K2O 大約是 7:1.5:2.2.[26]由於與磷酸二銨等乾燥製造的氮肥相比，尿液作為肥料被相當稀釋，因此尿液的相對運輸成本較高，因為需要運輸大量的水。[26]

使用尿液作為肥料的一般限制主要取決於過量氮累積的可能性（由於該大量營養素的比例很高），[20]以及氯化鈉等無機鹽，它們也是腎臟系統排出廢物的一部分。過度施尿或其他氮肥會導致植物吸收過多的氨。[24]用尿液施肥時需要考慮的重要參數包括植物的耐鹽性、土壤成分、其他施肥化合物的添加以及降雨量或其他灌溉量。[16]1995年有報告指出，與標記硝酸銨相比，尿氮氣態損失相對較高，植物吸收較低。相反，磷的使用率高於可溶性磷酸鹽。[18]尿液也可以安全地用作富碳堆肥中的氮源。[21]

人類尿液可以透過使用小便池或尿液分流廁所的衛生系統來收集。如果要分離和收集尿液用作農業肥料，則可以透過使用無水小便池、尿液分流乾式廁所 (UDDT) 或尿液分流沖水廁所的衛生系統來完成。[26]在儲存過程中，尿液中的尿素被尿素酶迅速水解，產生氨。[27]可以用收集的尿液進行進一步處理，以穩定氮並濃縮肥料。[28]一種解決氣味的低技術解決方案是在尿液收集容器中添加檸檬酸或醋，這樣脲酶就會失去活性，並且形成的氨不揮發。[29]除了濃縮之外，還可以使用簡單的化學過程來提取純物質：硝酸鹽形式的氮（類似於中世紀的硝床）和鳥糞石形式的磷。[28]

使用尿液作為肥料來源的健康風險通常被認為可以忽略不計，特別是當尿液分散在土壤中而不是在被消耗的植物部分時。尿液可以透過埋在土壤表面下約 10 公分的穿孔軟管分配到農作物之間，從而最大限度地減少異味、因揮發造成的營養損失或病原體傳播的風險。[30]與直接用作廢水相比，當尿液在污水處理廠中作為污水的一部分處理時，可能會出現更多的環境問題（例如，由於營養豐富的廢水流入水生或海洋生態系統而導致富營養化），並且能源消耗更高。[31][32]在發展中國家，使用原污水或糞便污泥在歷史上一直很常見，但到 2021 年，將純尿液應用於農作物仍然相當罕見。[22][33]大約從 2011 年開始，比爾和梅琳達蓋茲基金會就開始為涉及回收尿液中營養物質的衛生系統的研究提供資金。[34]

糞便

According to the 2004 "proposed Swedish default values", an average Swedish adult excretes 0.55 kg nitrogen, 0.18 kg phosphorus, and 0.36 kg potassium as feces per year. The yearly mass is 51 kg wet and 11 kg dried, so that wet feces would have a NPK% value of 1.1:0.8:0.9.[17]:5[a][b]

乾燥糞便

尿液分流旱廁的乾燥人類糞便經過後處理後的再利用，可透過氮、磷、鉀的施肥作用提高作物產量，並透過有機碳提高土壤肥力。[35]

堆肥糞便

 
在以排泄物為基底的堆肥（左）和不使用土壤改良劑（右）中種植的捲心菜，海地的土壤。

原則上，來自堆肥廁所的堆肥（有機廚房垃圾在某些情況下也被添加到堆肥廁所中）與來自其他有機廢物產品（例如污水污泥或城市有機廢物）的堆肥具有相同的用途。限制因素之一可能是法律限制，因為堆肥中可能存在病原體。無論如何，使用自家花園的堆肥廁所堆肥算是安全的，是堆肥廁所堆肥的主要使用方法。所有接觸堆肥的人都必須採取處理堆肥的衛生措施，例如：戴著手套和雨鞋。

有些尿液將成為堆肥的一部分，儘管有些尿液會透過滲濾液和蒸發而流失。尿液中含有人類排泄物中高達 90% 的氮、高達 50% 的磷 和高達 70% 的鉀。[36]

堆肥廁所的堆肥中的營養物質比典型的尿液分流乾廁所的乾糞便具有更高的植物利用率。然而，這兩個過程並不互相排斥：有些堆肥廁所確實會轉移尿液（以避免水和氮過度飽和），而乾燥的糞便仍然可以堆肥。[37]

糞便污泥

Fecal sludge is defined as "coming from onsite sanitation technologies, and has not been transported through a sewer." Examples of onsite technologies include pit latrines, unsewered public ablution blocks, septic tanks and dry toilets. Fecal sludge can be treated by a variety of methods to render it suitable for reuse in agriculture. These include (usually carried out in combination) dewatering, thickening, drying (in sludge drying beds), composting, pelletization, and anaerobic digestion.[38]

市政廢水

更多信息：再生水

Reclaimed water can be reused for irrigation, industrial uses, replenishing natural water courses, water bodies, aquifers, and other potable and non-potable uses. These applications, however, focus usually on the water aspect, not on the nutrients and organic matter reuse aspect, which is the focus of "reuse of excreta".

When wastewater is reused in agriculture, its nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) content may be useful for additional fertilizer application.[39] Work by the International Water Management Institute and others has led to guidelines on how reuse of municipal wastewater in agriculture for irrigation and fertilizer application can be safely implemented in low income countries.[40][3]

污泥

The use of treated sewage sludge (after treatment also called "biosolids") as a soil conditioner or fertilizer is possible but is a controversial topic in some countries (such as USA, some countries in Europe) due to the chemical pollutants it may contain, such as heavy metals and environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants.

Northumbrian Water in the United Kingdom uses two biogas plants to produce what the company calls "poo power"—using sewage sludge to produce energy to generate income. Biogas production has reduced its pre-1996 electricity expenditure of 20 million GBP by about 20%. Severn Trent and Wessex Water also have similar projects.[41]

污泥處理液體

Sludge treatment liquids (after anaerobic digestion) can be used as an input source for a process to recover phosphorus in the form of struvite for use as fertilizer. For example, the Canadian company Ostara Nutrient Recovery Technologies is marketing a process based on controlled chemical precipitation of phosphorus in a fluidized bed reactor that recovers struvite in the form of crystalline pellets from sludge dewatering streams. The resulting crystalline product is sold to the agriculture, turf, and ornamental plants sectors as fertilizer under the registered trade name "Crystal Green".[42]

磷高峰

In the case of phosphorus in particular, reuse of excreta is one known method to recover phosphorus to mitigate the looming shortage (also known as "peak phosphorus") of economical mined phosphorus. Mined phosphorus is a limited resource that is being used up for fertilizer production at an ever-increasing rate, which is threatening worldwide food security. Therefore, phosphorus from excreta-based fertilizers is an interesting alternative to fertilizers containing mined phosphate ore.[43]

農業用途的健康與環境問題

病原體

農業安全使用的多重屏障概念

Research into how to make reuse of urine and feces safe in agriculture has been carried out in Sweden since the 1990s.[16] In 2006 the World Health Organization (WHO) provided guidelines on safe reuse of wastewater, excreta, and greywater.[3] The multiple barrier concept to reuse, which is the key cornerstone of this publication, has led to a clear understanding of how excreta reuse can be done safely. The concept is also used in water supply and food production, and is generally understood as a series of treatment steps and other safety precautions to prevent the spread of pathogens.

The degree of treatment required for excreta-based fertilizers before they can safely be used in agriculture depends on a number of factors. It mainly depends on which other barriers will be put in place according to the multiple barrier concept. Such barriers might be selecting a suitable crop, farming methods, methods of applying the fertilizer, education of the farmers, and so forth.[44]

For example, in the case of urine-diverting dry toilets secondary treatment of dried feces can be performed at community level rather than at household level and can include thermophilic composting where fecal material is composted at over 50 °C, prolonged storage with a duration of 1.5 to two years, chemical treatment with ammonia from urine to inactivate the pathogens, solar sanitation for further drying or heat treatment to eliminate pathogens.[45][35]

Exposure of farm workers to untreated excreta constitutes a significant health risk due to its pathogen content. There can be a large amount of enteric bacteria, virus, protozoa, and helminth eggs in feces.[2] This risk also extends to consumers of crops fertilized with untreated excreta. Therefore, excreta needs to be appropriately treated before reuse, and health aspects need to be managed for all reuse applications as the excreta can contain pathogens even after treatment.

處理排泄物以移除病原體

Temperature is a treatment parameter with an established relation to pathogen inactivation for all pathogen groups: Temperatures above 50 °C（122 °F） have the potential to inactivate most pathogens.[4]:101 Therefore, thermal sanitization is utilized in several technologies, such as thermophilic composting and thermophilic anaerobic digestion and potentially in sun drying. Alkaline conditions (pH value above 10) can also deactivate pathogens. This can be achieved with ammonia sanitization or lime treatment.[4]:101

The treatment of excreta and wastewater for pathogen removal can take place:

藥物殘留

Excreta from humans contains hormones and pharmaceutical drug residues which could in theory enter the food chain via fertilized crops but are currently not fully removed by conventional wastewater treatment plants anyway and can enter drinking water sources via household wastewater (sewage).[26] In fact, the pharmaceutical residues in the excreta are degraded better in terrestrial systems (soil) than in aquatic systems.[26]

硝酸鹽污染

Only a fraction of the nitrogen-based fertilizers is converted to produce plant matter. The remainder accumulates in the soil or is lost as run-off.[46] This also applies to excreta-based fertilizer since it also contains nitrogen. Excessive nitrogen which is not taken up by plants is transformed into nitrate which is easily leached.[47] High application rates combined with the high water-solubility of nitrate leads to increased runoff into surface water as well as leaching into groundwater.[48][49][50] Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause 'blue baby syndrome' (acquired methemoglobinemia).[51] The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for ecosystems and for human health if they are washed off into surface water or leached through the soil into groundwater.

其他用途

Apart from use in agriculture, there are other possible uses of excreta. For example, in the case of fecal sludge, it can be treated and then serve as protein (black soldier fly process), fodder, fish food, building materials, and biofuels (biogas from anaerobic digestion, incineration or co-combustion of dried sludge, pyrolysis of fecal sludge, and biodiesel from fecal sludge).[38][6]

燃料

固體燃料、熱能、電力

Pilot scale research in Uganda and Senegal has shown that it is viable to use dry feces as for combustion in industry, provided it has been dried to a minimum of 28% dry solids.[52]

Dried sewage sludge can be burned in sludge incineration plants and generate heat and electricity (the waste-to-energy process is one example).

Resource recovery of fecal sludge as a solid fuel has been found to have high market potential in Sub-Saharan Africa.[11]

氫燃料

更多信息：氫燃料

Urine has also been investigated as a potential source of hydrogen fuel.[53][54] Urine was found to be a suitable wastewater for high rate hydrogen production in a microbial electrolysis cell (MEC).[53]

沼氣

更多信息：生物燃氣

Small-scale biogas plants are being utilized in many countries, including Ghana,[55] Vietnam[56] and many others.[57] Larger centralized systems are being planned that mix animal and human feces to produce biogas.[52] Biogas is also produced during sewage sludge treatment processes with anaerobic digestion. Here, it can be used for heating the digesters and for generating electricity.[58]

Biogas is an important waste-to-energy resource which plays a huge role in reducing environmental pollution and most importantly in reducing greenhouse gases effect caused by the waste. Utilization of raw material such as human waste for biogas generation is considered beneficial because it does not require additional starters such as microorganism seeds for methane production, and a supply of microorganisms occurs continuously during the feeding of raw materials.[59]

牲畜的食物來源

参见：豬廁

Combination outhouses/feeding troughs were used in several countries since ancient times. They are generally being phased out.

生產動物飼料蛋白質的食物來源

Pilot facilities are being developed for feeding black soldier fly larvae with feces. The mature flies would then be a source of protein to be included in the production of feed for chickens in South Africa.[52]

Black soldier fly (BSF) bio-waste processing is a relatively new treatment technology that has received increasing attention over the last decades. Larvae grown on bio-waste can be a necessary raw material for animal feed production, and can therefore provide revenues for financially applicable waste management systems. In addition, when produced on bio-waste, insect-based feeds can be more sustainable than conventional feeds.[60]

建築材料

It is known that additions of fecal matter up to 20% by dried weight in clay bricks does not make a significant functional difference to bricks.[52]

貴金屬回收

A Japanese sewage treatment facility extracts precious metals from sewage sludge, "high percentage of gold found at the Suwa facility was probably due to the large number of precision equipment manufacturers in the vicinity that use [gold]. The facility recently recorded finding 1,890 grammes of gold per tonne of ash from incinerated sludge. That is a far higher gold content than Japan’s Hishikari Mine, one of the world’s top gold mines, [...] which contains 20–40 grammes of the precious metal per tonne of ore."[61] This idea was also tested by the US Geological Survey (USGS) which found that the yearly sewage sludge generated by 1 million people contained 13 million dollars worth of precious metals.[61]

其他材料

With pyrolysis, urine is turned into a pre-doped, highly porous, carbon material termed "urine carbon" (URC). URC is cheaper than current fuel cell catalysts while performing better.[62]

Society and culture

Economics

Debate is ongoing about whether reuse of excreta is cost effective.[63] The terms "sanitation economy" and "toilet resources" have been introduced to describe the potential for selling products made from human feces or urine.[63][64]

Sale of compost

The NGO SOIL in Haiti began building urine-diverting dry toilets and composting the waste produced for agricultural use in 2006.[65] SOIL's two composting waste treatment facilities currently transform over 20,000 gallons (75,708 liters) of human excreta into organic, agricultural-grade compost every month.[66] The compost produced at these facilities is sold to farmers, organizations, businesses, and institutions around the country to help finance SOIL's waste treatment operations.[67] Crops grown with this soil amendment include spinach, peppers, sorghum, maize, and more. Each batch of compost produced is tested for the indicator organism E. coli to ensure that complete pathogen kill has taken place during the thermophilic composting process.[68]

Policies

There is still a lack of examples of implemented policy where the reuse aspect is fully integrated in policy and advocacy.[69] When considering drivers for policy change in this respect, the following lessons learned should be taken into consideration: Revising legislation does not necessarily lead to functioning reuse systems; it is important to describe the “institutional landscape” and involve all actors; parallel processes should be initiated at all levels of government (i.e. national, regional and local level); country specific strategies and approaches are needed; and strategies supporting newly developed policies need to be developed).[69]

Regulatory considerations

Regulations such as Global Good Agricultural Practices may hinder export and import of agricultural products that have been grown with the application of human excreta-derived fertilisers.[70][71]

Urine use in organic farming in Europe

The European Union allows the use of source separated urine only in conventional farming within the EU, but not yet in organic farming. This is a situation that many agricultural experts, especially in Sweden, would like to see changed.[25] This ban may also reduce the options to use urine as a fertilizer in other countries if they wish to export their products to the EU.[70]

Dried feces from urine-diverting dry toilets in the U.S.

In the United States, the EPA regulation governs the management of sewage sludge but has no jurisdiction over the byproducts of a urine-diverting dry toilet. Oversight of these materials falls to the states.[72][73]

參見

筆記

  1. ^ 引用错误：没有为名为diet-adj的参考文献提供内容
  2. ^ For the amount of other elements in feces, see Rose 2015.[15]

參考資料

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外部連結

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