並系群
並系(英文:paraphyly 或 paraphyletic)又称並源[1],是系统发生学上常用的概念,指某一生物类群包含了一个共同祖先及其部分後代,但未包含其所有後代。这种由同一祖先演化而来的部分後代所组成的类群,被称为並系群[2](英文:paraphyletic group;中国大陆又译作偏系群[3],臺灣又译作側系群[4]或旁系群[5])。通常並系群包含了与祖先相比性状变化不大的成员,而变化更大的成员则被排除在外[6]。根据生物分类学界普遍认同的支序系統學观点,任何合理有效的自然分類群都应为单系群(包含一个祖先及其所有後代[7]),因此並系群被视作不完整的、人为设定的非自然类群[8]。
与並系群和单系群相关的概念还有多系群,又称複系群,是指不具有最近共同祖先的生物类群,即一群来源於不同祖先的生物被人为归类在一起,同样不被视作自然合理的分类群[2][8]。並系群与多系群的产生,大部分为传统认知的局限性所致,在未修正为单系群之前,通常被学界视作无效的分类。与多系群一般作拆分处理相对,並系群一般会进行合并处理。随着生物分类研究的不断深入和遗传学技术的不断完善,许多过去遗留的並系群已被合并调整为单系群。
词源
在英语和其他一些使用拉丁字母书写的语言中,“並系”(英文:paraphyly 或 paraphyletic)这一术语源自两个古希腊文单词:前缀“παρά”(拉丁转写:pará;意为旁边、附近)+词根“φῦλον”(phûlon;属,种)[9][10],指某生物类群与其唯一共同祖先的其他所有後代相互分离、未被归于一类的情况。
与之对应的术语“單系”(英文:monophyly 或 monophyletic),指某生物类群由其唯一共同祖先的所有後代组成。词根与“並系”同源,前缀来自古希腊文“μόνος”(mónos;单独的,唯一的)[9][10]。
另一相关术语“多系”(英文:polyphyly 或 polyphyletic),指某生物类群出自多个祖先,即内部成员各自有着不同的起源。词根也与“並系”同源,前缀来自古希腊文“πολύς”(polús;多,很多)[9][10]。
范例
並系群中一个典型的例子,是传统分类法所定义的爬行纲。古生物学和遗传学证据均明确显示,鸟类为恐龙的後裔,并且是鳄鱼现存關係最近的旁亲。爬行纲的传统定义包含了鸟类的祖先(恐龙),但却未包含该祖先的後裔(鸟类),因此有部分学者使用蜥形纲来取代传统的爬行纲,将鸟类划入其中,以构成一个完整的单系群[11]。
现生羊膜動物的分化關係如下所示,传统意义上的爬行纲为並系群,只有当其包含鸟类(与蜥形纲同义)时,方能成为合理的单系群[12]。
|
爬行纲 Reptilia |
另一个广为人知的並系群是旧时定义的偶蹄目。遗传学研究表明,鲸豚类动物是偶蹄目的演化支,而在传统分类中,鲸豚类被单列为鲸目,並不屬於偶蹄动物,这意味着传统的偶蹄目实为不合理的並系群[13]。因此,现行分类将鲸目降级为鲸下目,归入偶蹄目之下,以形成完整的单系群[14][15]。
|
传统的偶蹄目 |
除上述两个例子之外,生物分类学上其他的主要並系群如下:
並系群名稱 | 應包含而未包含的演化支 | 對應的单系群 | 參考文獻 |
---|---|---|---|
原核生物(Prokaryota) | 真核生物(Eukaryota) | 生物 | [16] |
原生生物(Protista) | 植物、动物、真菌 | 真核生物 | [17] |
轮藻门(Charophyta) | 有胚植物(Embryophyta) | 链型植物(Streptophyta) | [18] |
苔藓植物 | 维管植物(Tracheophyta) | 有胚植物 | [19][18] |
裸子植物(Gymnospermae) | 被子植物(Angiospermae) | 种子植物(Spermatophyta) | [20] |
双子叶植物 | 單子葉植物 | 被子植物 | [21] |
无脊椎动物 | 脊椎动物(Vertebrata) | 动物界(Animalia) | [22] |
海绵 | 真後生動物(Eumetazoa) | 动物界 | [23][24] |
辐射对称动物(Radiata) | 两侧对称动物(Bilateria) | 真後生動物 | [25] |
珊瑚 | 水母亞門(Medusozoa)、黏體動物亞門(Myxozoa) | 刺胞動物門(Cnidaria) | [26][27] |
水母 | 软水母亚纲(Hydroidolina) | 水母亞門 | [28][29][30] |
蠕虫 | 不固定,因使用情况而异 | 腎管動物(Nephrozoa) | [31][32] |
环神经动物(Cycloneuralia) | 泛节肢动物(Panarthropoda) | 蛻皮動物(Ecdysozoa) | [33][34] |
甲殼亞門(Crustacea) | 六足亞門(Hexapoda) | 泛甲殼動物(Pancrustacea) | [35][36] |
蛾 | 蝴蝶 | 鱗翅目(Lepidoptera) | [37] |
广腰亚目(Symphyta) | 细腰亚目(Apocrita) | 膜翅目(Hymenoptera) | [38] |
黄蜂 | 蚂蚁(蟻總科 Formicoidea)、蜜蜂(花蜂類 Anthophila) | 细腰亚目 | [39] |
胡蜂總科(Vespoidea) | 蟻總科、蜜蜂总科(Apoidea) | 真针尾类(Euaculeata) | [39] |
扁蟲動物(Platyzoa) | 冠輪動物(Lophotrochozoa)、中生动物(Mesozoa) | 螺旋動物(Spiralia) | [40] |
輪蟲動物門(Rotifera) | 棘头动物门(Acanthocephala) | 合皮動物(Syndermata) | [41][42] |
鹦鹉螺亚纲(Nautiloidea) | 菊石亚纲(Ammonoidea)、蛸亞綱(Coleoidea) | 头足纲(Cephalopoda) | [43] |
魚綱(Pisces) | 四足動物(Tetrapoda) | 脊椎动物 | [38] |
蜥蜴亞目(Lacertilia) | 蛇亚目(Serpentes)、蚓蜥类(Amphisbaenia) | 有鱗目(Squamata) | [44] |
盤龍目(Pelycosaur) | 獸孔目(Therapsida) | 合弓綱(Synapsida) | [11] |
斜沟齿兽亚目(Plagiaulacida) | 土鼠亞目(Cimolodonta)、北美俊兽科(Arginbaataridae) | 多瘤齒獸目(Multituberculata) | [45] |
古鯨類(Archaeoceti) | 新鯨類(Neoceti) | 鯨類(Cetacea) | [46] |
原猿类(Prosimii) | 類人猿下目(Simiiformes) | 灵长目(Primates) | [47] |
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[目前认为,拥有两个子叶是开花植物类群的祖先特徵,而不是任何类群内部的衍徵。“双子叶植物”……是並系的……] - ^ Agassiz, Louis. Essay on Classification. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications. 2013: 115. ISBN 978-0-486-15135-9. OCLC 868969147. (原始内容存档于2021-09-09).
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[广腰亚目和细腰亚目长期以来一直被认为是膜翅目的两个亚目,但由於认识到广腰亚目的並系性(Köningsmann 1977,Rasnitsyn 1988),加上支序學分類法的出现,这样的亚目分类应當避免。同样的,树蜂被认为是非單系的,形成了一个相对於细腰亚目和尾蜂科的祖先级别。传统的膜翅目分类是错误的,根据支序学的标准,这种情况与支序学出现之前的脊椎动物分类相同,那时认为具有共同祖徵的类群是自然的,例如鱼类曾被统一归为“鱼纲”,将四足动物排除在外。] - ^ 39.0 39.1 Johnson, Brian R.; Borowiec, Marek L.; Chiu, Joanna C.; Lee, Ernest K.; Atallah, Joel; Ward, Philip S. Phylogenomics Resolves Evolutionary Relationships among Ants, Bees, and Wasps (PDF). Current Biology. 2013, 23 (20): 2058–2062. PMID 24094856. S2CID 230835 . doi:10.1016/j.cub.2013.08.050 .
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外部链接
- 维基共享资源上的相關多媒體資源:並系群
- Funk, D.J.; Omland, K.E. Species-Level Paraphyly and Polyphyly: Frequency, Causes, and Consequences, with Insights from Animal Mitochondrial DNA. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 2003, 34: 397–423. JSTOR 30033781. S2CID 33951905 . doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132421.