维基百科

泳裝史

泳裝歷史，追溯男女泳裝隨時間和文化的變化，並觸及社會、宗教、法律對游泳和泳裝的態度。因為泳裝和近代游泳活動都來自西方，所以又可稱西方泳裝史。

諷刺雜誌Le Suprême Bon Ton描繪的大約1810年的游泳運動員

西方古典时代和大多數文化，游泳要么穿內衣，要么裸體。到文艺复兴，游泳普遍受到強烈反對。進入18世紀，游泳甚至被認為道德可疑，必須證明其健康合理性。到维多利亚时代，當時的泳裝在水中笨重甚至危險，尤其女式連身泳裝。到20世紀初，西方游泳才被視為一種合法的休閒活動或消遣，專門製作泳裝成為常態。從那時起，女性泳裝變得越來越寬鬆和合身。

古典时代

有羅馬壁畫展示了有女性穿着兩件式，以與現代比基尼相似的方式覆蓋胸部、臀部。但沒有證據表明其用於游泳。幾乎所有游泳圖畫是裸體游泳的。

在各種文化傳統，如果不是裸體游泳，人們通常會穿合適材料或內衣游泳，例如纏腰布（英语：loincloth）裏日本男子的褌。

中世纪

室內浴室、公眾浴場重新流行，但基本上仍然沒有穿衣服。要么裸體，要么用布包裹腹股溝。

17世紀

女性泳裝源自巴斯。女性裸體沐浴一直是常態，直到1670年代之後，女性則穿著衣服沐浴。Celia Fiennes在1687年對標準的女士泳裝作了詳細的描述：

女士們穿着由優質黃色帆布製成的衣服進入浴室，衣服堅硬且寬大，袖似牧師長袍一樣。水填滿以至於袖似消失了，看不見，不像其它襯裡那樣緊貼，看起來糟糕。先生們有同種優質帆布的腰帶和背心，這是最好的襯裡，因為洗澡水會變黃。[1]

18世紀

已隱藏部分未翻譯内容，歡迎參與翻譯。

The 泳衣 in the 18th century was a loose ankle-length full-sleeve chemise（英语：chemise）-type gown made of wool or flannel, so that modesty or decency was not threatened.[2]

In the United Kingdom until the mid-19th century there was no law against nude swimming, and each town was free to make its own laws. For example, the 巴斯 Corporation official bathing dress code of 1737 prescribed, for men:

It is Ordered Established and Decreed by this Corporation that no Male person above the age of ten years shall at any time hereafter go into any Bath or Baths within this City by day or by night without a Pair of 内衣 and a 馬甲 (西式外套) on their bodies.[1]:50

In rivers, lakes, streams and the sea men swam in the nude, where the practice was common. Those who did not swim in the nude, stripped to their underwear.

The Bath Corporation official bathing dress code of 1737 prescribed, for women:

No Female person shall at any time hereafter go into a Bath or Baths within this City by day or by night without a decent Shift on their bodies.[1]

The Expedition of Humphry Clinker（英语：The Expedition of Humphry Clinker） was published in 1771 and its description of ladies' bathing costume is different from that of Celia Fiennes a hundred years earlier:

The ladies wear jackets and petticoats of brown linen, with chip hats, in which they fix their handkerchiefs to wipe the sweat from their faces; but, truly, whether it is owing to the steam that surrounds them, or the heat of the water, or the nature of the dress, or to all these causes together, they look so flushed, and so frightful, that I always turn my eyes another way.[3]

19世紀

 
1870年代的美國羊毛女式泳衣，覆蓋手腿
已隱藏部分未翻譯内容，歡迎參與翻譯。
 
Man and woman in swimsuits, 约1910; she is exiting a bathing machine（英语：bathing machine）

The English practice of men swimming in the nude was banned in the United Kingdom in 1860. Drawers, or 四角褲s as they were called, came into use in the 1860s. Even then there were many who protested against them and wanted to remain in the nude. Francis Kilvert（英语：Francis Kilvert） described men's bathing suits coming into use in the 1870s as "a pair of very short red and white striped drawers".[4]

In the first half of the 19th century the top became knee-length while an ankle-length drawer was added as a bottom. By the second half of the 19th century, in France, the sleeves started to vanish, the bottom became shorter to reach only the knees and the top became hip-length and both became more form fitting.[2][5]

Penelope Byrde points out that Smollett's description may not be accurate, for he describes a two-piece costume, not the one piece shift or smock that most people describe and is depicted in contemporary prints. His description does, however, tally with Elizabeth Grant's description of the guide's costume at Ramsgate in 1811. The only difference is in the fabric the costumes are made of. Flannel, however, was a common fabric for sea bathing costumes as many believed the warmer fabric was necessary in cold water.[6]

In the West, in the 19th century women wore a 泳衣 in the water. These were loose ankle-length full-sleeve chemise（英语：chemise）-type gown made of wool or flannel, so that modesty or decency was not threatened.[2] They were long dresses of fabrics that would not become transparent when wet, with weights sewn into the hems so that they would not rise up in the water. The men's swim suit, a rather form-fitting wool garment with long sleeves and legs similar to long underwear, was developed and would change little for a century.

In the 19th century, the woman's double suit was common, comprising a gown from shoulder to knees plus a set of trousers with leggings going down to the ankles. In the first half of the 19th century the top became knee-length while an ankle-length drawer was added as a bottom. By the second half of the 19th century, in France, the sleeves started to vanish, the bottom became shorter to reach only the knees and the top became hip-length and both became more form fitting.[2][5] In the 1900s women wore wool dresses on the beach that were made of up to 9碼（8.2米） of fabric.[7]

In the 维多利亚时代, Western cultures deplored nudity of any degree, and people took great pains to cover themselves, even bare chested male swimmers at ocean beaches.[來源請求] Popular beach resorts were commonly equipped with bathing machine（英语：bathing machine）s designed to avoid the exposure of people in swimsuits, especially to people of the opposite sex.

In the United States, 選美活動s of women in bathing costumes became popular from the 1880s. However, such events were not regarded as respectable. Beauty contests became more respectable with the first modern "美利坚小姐" contest held in 1921, though less respectable beauty contests continued to be held.

  •  
    乔治·杜穆里埃於1877年在Punch創作的卡通片展示了男士和兒童泳衣
  •  
    1876-1880的美國泳衣
  •  
    1885的美國泳衣
  •  
    1890–1895的美國泳衣

20世紀早期

 
 
Annette Kellerman（英语：Annette Kellerman）的合身連體式坦克裝（英语：Maillot）（1907）啟發了奥林匹克运动会早期（1912）的女性泳裝

1907年澳大利亞的游泳運動員Annette Kellerman（英语：Annette Kellerman）作為水下芭蕾舞演員訪問美國，她的連體泳衣露出了手腿和脖子。[2]與當時的男士泳裝相似。

到1910年，連體泳衣成為歐洲部分地區女性公認的泳裝。[8]

已隱藏部分未翻譯内容，歡迎參與翻譯。

In 1907, the swimmer Annette Kellerman（英语：Annette Kellerman） from Australia visited the United States as an "underwater ballerina", a version of 花样游泳 involving diving into glass tanks. Her swimsuit showed arms, legs and the neck, a costume she adopted from England,[2] and which was similar to men's swimsuits of the time. Kellerman changed the suit to have long arms and legs and a collar, still keeping the close fit that revealed the shapes underneath. Kellerman marketed a line of bathing suits and her style of one-piece suits came to be known as "the Annette Kellerman". The one-piece swimming tights became accepted swimsuit attire for women in parts of Europe by 1910.[8] 时尚芭莎 praised the Kellerman swimsuit, writing in June 1920 (vol. 55, no. 6, p. 138) "Annette Kellerman Bathing Attire is distinguished by an incomparable, daring beauty of fit that always remains refined." The following year, in June 1921 (vol. 54, no. 2504, p. 101) it wrote that these bathing suits were "famous ... for their perfect fit and exquisite, plastic beauty of line."[2]

1910

 
 
海灘（1915）和雜誌（1916）的Maillot-style泳裝。

儘管一些團體反對，泳裝仍開始進一步縮水。露出手臂，然後露出大腿。領口從脖子周圍退到胸部頂部周圍。

已隱藏部分未翻譯内容，歡迎參與翻譯。

Despite opposition from some groups, the form-fitting style proved popular. It was not long before swimwear started to shrink further. At first arms were exposed and then legs up to mid-thigh. Necklines receded from around the neck down to around the top of the bosom. The development of new fabrics allowed for new varieties of more comfortable and practical swimwear.

Female swimming was introduced at the 1912 Summer Olympics（英语：Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics）. Competitors from 17 countries took part, with women from nine countries wearing swimsuits similar to Kellerman's swimsuit, which were similar to swimsuits worn by the male swimmers. In 1913, inspired by the breakthrough, the designer Carl Jantzen（英语：Carl Jantzen） made the first functional two-piece swimwear, a close-fitting one-piece with shorts on the bottom and short sleeves on top.[9] Silent films such as The Water Nymph（英语：The Water Nymph） (1912) saw Mabel Normand（英语：Mabel Normand） in revealing attire, and this was followed by the daringly dressed Sennett Bathing Beauties (1915–1929). The name "swim suit" was coined in 1915 by Jantzen Knitting Mills, a sweater manufacturer who launched a swimwear brand named the Red Diving Girl.[10] The first annual bathing-suit day at New York's 麦迪逊广场花园 in 1916 was a landmark.[11] The swimsuit apron, a design for early swimwear, disappeared by 1918, leaving a tunic covering the shorts.[12]

Public nudity was a major concern in designing early swimwear. It was a major factor behind the non-participation of American women in the 1912 Olympics.[13] At those Games, British women wore full-body silk suits of such a volume that they could be passed through a wedding ring. The suits were complemented by 胸罩 and 比基尼泳衣-style briefs as they became transparent when wet. Women's coaches were rare at early Olympics, and to further reduce the chances of harassment women were accompanied by chaperones（英语：Chaperone (social)）.[14] Even men wore 连体泳衣s covering the body from hips to shoulders up to the 1940s.[15]

1920

 
American 1920s woman's bathing suit

During the 1920s and 1930s, people began to shift from "taking in the water" to "taking in the sun", at bathhouses and spas, and swimsuit designs shifted from functional considerations to incorporate more decorative features. 嫘縈 was used in the 1920s in the manufacture of tight-fitting swimsuits,[7] but its durability, especially when wet, proved problematic,[16] with jersey（英语：Jersey (fabric)） and 丝绸 also sometimes being used.[17][18]

Burlesque（英语：Burlesque） and 歌舞杂耍表演 performers wore two-piece outfits in the 1920s. The 1929 film 持攝影機的人 shows Russian women wearing early two-piece swimsuits which expose their midriff, and a few who are topless. Films of holidaymakers in Germany in the 1930s show women wearing two-piece suits,[19] In 1928, 速比涛 introduced their racerback silk suit that was optimized to fit the body shape.[20][21]

1930

 
奥斯卡金像奖 winner actress 珍·惠曼 lounging on a California beach, 1935

By the 1930s men began to go without shirts for swimming,[22] and barechestedness in male swimwear became the norm by the end of the 1940s, including in competitive swimming events, in which men are not only barechested, but wear a swimming suit that is intended merely to meet public decency requirements. The norm of male barechestedness in swimwear extended to other competitive sports, such as professional boxing and professional wrestling.

By the 1930s, necklines plunged at the back, sleeves disappeared and sides were cut away and tightened. With the development of new clothing materials, particularly 乳胶 and 尼龙, through the 1930s swimsuits gradually began hugging the body, with shoulder straps that could be lowered for tanning.[12] Hollywood endorsed the new glamour with films such as Neptune's Daughter（英语：Neptune's Daughter (1949 film)） (1949) in which Esther Williams（英语：Esther Williams） wore provocatively named costumes such as "Double Entendre" and "Honey Child".[23] Williams, who also was an Amateur Athletic Union（英语：Amateur Athletic Union） champion in the 100 meter 自由泳 (1939)[24][25] also portrayed Kellerman in the 1952 film Million Dollar Mermaid（英语：Million Dollar Mermaid） (titled as The One Piece Bathing Suit in UK).[26] American designer Adele Simpson（英语：Adele Simpson）, a Coty American Fashion Critics' Awards（英语：Coty Award） winner (1947) and a notable alumna of the New York art school 普瑞特藝術學院, who believed clothes must be comfortable and practical designed a large part of her wardrobe which included mostly one-piece suits that were considered fashionable even in the early 1980s.[27] This was when Cole of California started marketing revealing prohibition suits and Catalina Swimwear（英语：Catalina Swimwear） introduced almost bare-back designs.[28]

可可·香奈尔 made suntans fashionable,[23] and in 1932 French designer 玛德琳·薇欧奈 offered an exposed midriff in an evening gown. They were seen a year later in Gold Diggers of 1933（英语：Gold Diggers of 1933）. The Busby Berkeley（英语：Busby Berkeley） film Footlight Parade（英语：Footlight Parade） of 1932 showcases 花样游泳 that featured bikinis. Dorothy Lamour（英语：Dorothy Lamour）'s The Hurricane（英语：The Hurricane (1937 film)） (1937) also showed two-piece bathing suits.[19] The 1934 film, Fashions of 1934（英语：Fashions of 1934） featured chorus girls wearing two-piece outfits which look identical to modern bikinis.[29] In 1934, a National Recreation Association study on the use of leisure time found that swimming, encouraged by the freedom of movement the new swimwear designs provided, was second only to movies in popularity as free time activity out of a list of 94 activities.[2] In 1935 American designer Claire McCardell（英语：Claire McCardell） cut out the side panels of a maillot-style bathing suit, the bikini's forerunner.[30] The 1938 invention of the Telescopic Watersuit in shirred elastic cotton ushered into the end the era of wool. Cotton sun-tops, printed with palm trees, and silk or rayon pyjamas, usually with a blouse top, became popular by 1939.[23]

Speedo racerback silk suit that uncovered the 肩胛骨 almost resulted in disqualification of 克莱尔·丹尼斯 at the 1932 Olympics,[31] but became a norm by 1936.[32] Meanwhile, men were allowed to swim in bare-chest suits in 1936, and in briefs only at the 1948 Olympics.[20][33]

1940

Wartime production during 第二次世界大战 required vast amounts of 棉花, 丝绸, 尼龙, 羊毛, 皮革, and 天然橡胶. In 1942, the United States 战时生产委员会 issued Regulation L-85, cutting the use of natural fibers in clothing[34] and mandating a 10% reduction in the amount of fabric in women's beachwear.[35] To comply with the regulations, swimsuit manufacturers produced two-piece suits with bare midriffs.[36] The fabric shortage continued for some time after the end of the war.

Women's swimwear of the 1930s and 1940s incorporated increasing degrees of midriff exposure（英语：midriff exposure）. Teen magazines of late 1940s and 1950s featured similar designs of midriff-baring suits and tops. However, midriff fashion was stated as only for beaches and informal events and considered indecent to be worn in public.[37]

Because of the figure-hugging nature of these garments, 魅力摄影 since the 1940s and 1950s has often featured people wearing swimsuits. This type of glamour photography eventually evolved into swimsuit photography exemplified by the annual 運動畫刊泳裝特輯. Beauty contests also required contestants to wear form-fitting swimsuits.

Two-piece swimsuits without the usual skirt panel and other superfluous material started appearing in the U.S. when the government ordered the 10% reduction in fabric used in woman's swimwear in 1943 as wartime rationing.[35] By that time, two-piece swimsuits were ubiquitous on American beaches. The July 9, 1945, 生活 (雜誌) shows women in 巴黎 wearing similar items. 美国电影 stars like 艾娃·加德纳, 丽塔·海华丝 and 拉娜·特纳 tried similar swimwear or 泳衣.[38] 海報女郎 of Hayworth and Esther Williams（英语：Esther Williams） in the costume were widely distributed.[9] The most provocative swimsuit was the 1946 Moonlight Buoy, a bottom and a top of material that weighed only eight ounces. What made the Moonlight Buoy distinctive was a large 軟木 (材料) 帶扣 attached to the bottoms, which made it possible to tie the top to the cork buckle and splash around 天然主義 while keeping both parts of the suit afloat. 生活 (雜誌) magazine had a 影像式論文 on the Moonlight Buoy and wrote, "The name of the suit, of course, suggests the nocturnal conditions under which nude swimming is most agreeable."[39]

1950

Swimwear of the 1940s, 50s and early 60s followed the 剪影 mostly from the early 1930s whereas after 第二次世界大战, a new wardrobe and style of vacation-swimwear arose, coupled with an increase of leisure time and bustling postwar resorts.[40] In 1951, a huge celebration called "The Festival of Britain" was promoted of everything new and modern and cast a line into the future, building on a feeling of hope.[41] Beachwear style were very popular in U.S and Europe,[40] but this fashion originated on the 蔚藍海岸, which people was quoted this place as "A sunny place for shady people".[41] Keeping in line with the ultra-feminine look dominated by 克里斯汀·迪奧 (品牌) which brought out his one and only collection of swimwear for the Cole of California in 1955.[41] He designed a series of floral printed swimsuits with halter neckline style. It evolved into a dress followed his New Look silhouette with cinched waists and constructed bustlines, accessorized with earrings, bracelets, hats, scarves, sunglasses, hand bags and cover-ups.[42] American Women inspired by Hollywood's film stars For example, Doris Day offering a 'girl-next-door' look and the accession and coronation of the young Queen Elizabeth in February 1952 and June 1953 respectively.[43]

For the early 50s, despite the reaction to the 比基尼泳衣 worn by Brigitte Bardot in Manina, the Girl in the Bikini（英语：Manina, the Girl in the Bikini） in 1952, most women in the 1950s still wore one-piece suits.[40] To increasing female emancipation and realized the commercial possibilities of beauty pageants, big companies launched beauty contests to find girls who could help promote products, believing that a picture of a pretty girl in a swimsuit was the best promotion. Instead of swimsuits, these contests popularized the 連身短褲, but swimsuits remained the highlight in the beauty contest.[41]

The first bikinis appeared just after 第二次世界大战. Early examples were not very different from the women's two pieces common since the 1920s, except that they had a gap below the breast line allowing for a section of bare midriff. They were named after 比基尼环礁, the site of several nuclear weapons tests, for their supposed explosive effect on the viewer. Beside 克里斯汀·迪奧, some designers also launched the swimwear collection, such as Bob and Bill Meistrell of body glove and Robert and Jack O'Neill of the surf brand O'Neill.[41] Many of these pre-bikinis had fancy names like Double Entendre, Honey Child (to maximize 乳房), Shipshape (to minimize 乳房), Diamond Lil (trimmed with 仿製金剛石s and 蕾丝), Swimming In Mink (trimmed with 皮草 across the bodice（英语：bodice）) and Spearfisherman (heavy poplin（英语：poplin） with a rope belt for carrying a knife), Beau Catcher, Leading Lady, Pretty Foxy, Side Issue, Forecast, and Fabulous Fit.[39] However, the bikini was banned from the Miss World contest, following the crowning of Miss Sweden（英语：Miss Sweden）. Some people declared the bikini to be morally "indecent". Even in Europe in 1950, there was an Italian magazine also declared that the bikini should be worn purely for the sunbathing purposes or on board boats.[41]

According to Vogue (雜誌) the swimwear had become more of "state of dress, not undress" by the mid-1950s.[42] Bikini had a colorful period on the cinema screens and made an impact in the late 50s, inspired by the film such as 上帝創造女人 by 羅傑·華汀, launched Bardot into the spotlight and became the benchmark for bikini on celluloid. Also, her outfit sets a whole new trend for sex symbols.[41]

Starting in the 1940s, the manufacturing advances enabled swimsuits to fit without the help of elastic, and aid as performance aid in competitive swimming.[41] In the early 1950s, other synthetics beside the screen print technique was being developed, such as polyester and acrylic, with quick-drying properties. In U.S, the 夏威夷州an -日本ese- inspired prints were often used. In Europe, Emilio Pucci（英语：Emilio Pucci） moved swimwear textile on a generation when he began to design prints for Rose Marrie Reid swimwear.[40] By the late 1950s, new materials were developed and applied on the corsetry swimwear, such as Lastex（英语：Lastex）, a fabric woven from artificial chromspun acetate that used for a more tightly fitted appearance.

速比涛 produced the wool and cotton swimwear for the Melbourne Olympics in 1956.[41] In 1956, Speedo became the first company to introduce 尼龙.[44]

Men's swimsuits developed roughly in parallel to women's during this period, with the shorts covering progressively less. Racing-style "speedo" suits became popular, as did 丁字褲s, G弦褲s and 比基尼泳衣 style briefs. Typically these are more popular in more 热带 regions; however, they may also be worn at public 游泳池s and inland lakes.

1960

In 1964 designer Rudi Gernreich（英语：Rudi Gernreich） conceived and produced the monokini,[45] a revolutionary and controversial design included a bottom that "extended from the midriff to the upper thigh"[46] and was "held up by shoestring laces that make a halter around the neck."[47][45]

1970

In the 1970s Speedo added 氨綸 to their swimsuits that improved their elasticity, durability and reduced water drag – 21 out of 22 records at the 1972 Olympics were broken using nylon/elastane suits.[20]

At the same Olympics, East German swimmers adopted suits that were tightly following the body shape, the so-called "skinsuits". They were initially made of cotton and became virtually transparent when wet. The revealing shape and transparency caused outrage among US swimmers; meanwhile, at the 1973 World Aquatics Championships（英语：1973 World Aquatics Championships）, East German women won 10 of 14 events and set seven world records. Those championships became the turning point for the world to adopt the skinsuit, modified with novel synthetic materials, as a standard competitive swimwear.[48]

1980

In 1985, Gernreich unveiled the lesser known pubikini（英语：pubikini）, a bathing suit meant to expose 陰毛.[49] The pubikini is a small piece of fabric that hugs the hips and buttocks but leaves the pubic region exposed,[50] described as a tiny V-shaped fabric strip and a piece de resistance totally freeing the human body.[51] It featured a thong-style bottom[52] while the front was a tiny V-shaped strip of fabric that dipped below the woman's 阴阜, exposing her 陰毛 and portions of her 女陰.[50][53] This was his last design, four weeks before his death.[54][55]

1990

Tankini（英语：Tankini） and the concept of mix-and-match swimwears were the two major innovations in that genre in the late 1990s.[56] Designer Anne Cole（英语：Anne Cole）, the US swimwear mogul, was the originator of this style.[57] Hailed as the first major innovation in women's swimsuit design in several decades, the two-piece tankini blended the freedom of a bikini with the more modest coverage of a one-piece bathing suit, and quickly captured nearly a third of the swimwear market.[58][59] Aimed at closing a gap in the swimwear market, the popularity of tankini largely came from Cole's tapping into women's anxieties about swimwear.[60] In the years following its introduction tankinis diversified in style and range, adding other big name designers such as 拉尔夫·劳伦, 唐娜·卡兰, 諾帝卡, and 卡爾文·克雷恩 (設計師).[61]

For men, longer and baggier shorts became popular in this era, with the hems often reaching to the knees. Often called boardshorts and swim trunks, these were worn lower on the hips than regular shorts.

2000

In 2005, a controversy broke out when 佛教s complained against swimwear manufacturer Ondade Mar and lingerie giant 维多利亚的秘密 started marketing tankinis featuring Buddhist iconography.[62] In the same year 耐克's breast cancer awareness swimwear collection featured four different cuts of tankini.[63]

In 2000, Speedo launched the 速比涛 suit series that mimicked shark skin. Their surface contained bumps and ridges that channeled the water over the swimmer's body approximately 3% more efficiently than traditional materials.[64][65] Those suits covered most of the body, from neck to ankles and wrists, and their shape was optimized for specific swimming strokes, compressing some body parts while allowing more freedom to the others.[66][67] Those suits were approved for the 2000 Olympics, where they helped win 83% of the medals.[64] By the next Olympics, similar suits had been developed by Tyr Sport, Inc.（英语：Tyr Sport, Inc.）, but they were not approved by the 世界水上运动.[68]

In July 2009, 世界水上运动 voted to ban non-textile (non-woven) swimsuits in competitive events from 2010. The new policy was implemented to combat the issues associated with performance enhancing costumes, hindering the ability to accurately measure the performance of swimmers. Subsequently, the new ruling states that men's swimsuits may maximally cover the area from the navel to the knee, and women's counterparts from the shoulder to the knee.[69][70]

2010

2009年7月，世界水上运动投票決定禁止在2010年的比賽項目中使用非紡織（無紡布）泳衣。男士泳衣可以最大限度地覆蓋從肚臍到膝蓋的區域，而女士泳衣則可以最大限度地覆蓋從肩膀到膝蓋的區域。

參見

參考

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Byrde, Penelope. That Frightful Unbecoming Dress: Clothes for Spa Bathing at Bath. Costume. 1987, 21 (1): 48–49. ISSN 0590-8876. doi:10.1179/cos.1987.21.1.44. [失效連結]
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來源

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