维基百科

泳装史

泳装历史，追溯男女泳装随时间和文化的变化，并触及社会、宗教、法律对游泳和泳装的态度。因为泳装和近代游泳活动都来自西方，所以又可称西方泳装史。

讽刺杂志Le Suprême Bon Ton描绘的大约1810年的游泳运动员

西方古典时代和大多数文化，游泳要么穿内衣，要么裸体。到文艺复兴，游泳普遍受到强烈反对。进入18世纪，游泳甚至被认为道德可疑，必须证明其健康合理性。到维多利亚时代，当时的泳装在水中笨重甚至危险，尤其女式连身泳装。到20世纪初，西方游泳才被视为一种合法的休闲活动或消遣，专门制作泳装成为常态。从那时起，女性泳装变得越来越宽松和合身。

古典时代

有罗马壁画展示了有女性穿着两件式，以与现代比基尼相似的方式覆盖胸部、臀部。但没有证据表明其用于游泳。几乎所有游泳图画是裸体游泳的。

在各种文化传统，如果不是裸体游泳，人们通常会穿合适材料或内衣游泳，例如缠腰布（英语：loincloth）里日本男子的裈。

中世纪

室内浴室、公众浴场重新流行，但基本上仍然没有穿衣服。要么裸体，要么用布包裹腹股沟。

17世纪

女性泳装源自巴斯。女性裸体沐浴一直是常态，直到1670年代之后，女性则穿着衣服沐浴。Celia Fiennes在1687年对标准的女士泳装作了详细的描述：

女士们穿着由优质黄色帆布制成的衣服进入浴室，衣服坚硬且宽大，袖似牧师长袍一样。水填满以至于袖似消失了，看不见，不像其它衬里那样紧贴，看起来糟糕。先生们有同种优质帆布的腰带和背心，这是最好的衬里，因为洗澡水会变黄。[1]

18世纪

已隐藏部分未翻译内容，欢迎参与翻译。

The 泳衣 in the 18th century was a loose ankle-length full-sleeve chemise（英语：chemise）-type gown made of wool or flannel, so that modesty or decency was not threatened.[2]

In the United Kingdom until the mid-19th century there was no law against nude swimming, and each town was free to make its own laws. For example, the 巴斯 Corporation official bathing dress code of 1737 prescribed, for men:

It is Ordered Established and Decreed by this Corporation that no Male person above the age of ten years shall at any time hereafter go into any Bath or Baths within this City by day or by night without a Pair of 内衣 and a 马甲 (西式外套) on their bodies.[1]:50

In rivers, lakes, streams and the sea men swam in the nude, where the practice was common. Those who did not swim in the nude, stripped to their underwear.

The Bath Corporation official bathing dress code of 1737 prescribed, for women:

No Female person shall at any time hereafter go into a Bath or Baths within this City by day or by night without a decent Shift on their bodies.[1]

The Expedition of Humphry Clinker（英语：The Expedition of Humphry Clinker） was published in 1771 and its description of ladies' bathing costume is different from that of Celia Fiennes a hundred years earlier:

The ladies wear jackets and petticoats of brown linen, with chip hats, in which they fix their handkerchiefs to wipe the sweat from their faces; but, truly, whether it is owing to the steam that surrounds them, or the heat of the water, or the nature of the dress, or to all these causes together, they look so flushed, and so frightful, that I always turn my eyes another way.[3]

19世纪

 
1870年代的美国羊毛女式泳衣，覆盖手腿
已隐藏部分未翻译内容，欢迎参与翻译。
 
Man and woman in swimsuits, 约1910; she is exiting a bathing machine（英语：bathing machine）

The English practice of men swimming in the nude was banned in the United Kingdom in 1860. Drawers, or 四角裤s as they were called, came into use in the 1860s. Even then there were many who protested against them and wanted to remain in the nude. Francis Kilvert（英语：Francis Kilvert） described men's bathing suits coming into use in the 1870s as "a pair of very short red and white striped drawers".[4]

In the first half of the 19th century the top became knee-length while an ankle-length drawer was added as a bottom. By the second half of the 19th century, in France, the sleeves started to vanish, the bottom became shorter to reach only the knees and the top became hip-length and both became more form fitting.[2][5]

Penelope Byrde points out that Smollett's description may not be accurate, for he describes a two-piece costume, not the one piece shift or smock that most people describe and is depicted in contemporary prints. His description does, however, tally with Elizabeth Grant's description of the guide's costume at Ramsgate in 1811. The only difference is in the fabric the costumes are made of. Flannel, however, was a common fabric for sea bathing costumes as many believed the warmer fabric was necessary in cold water.[6]

In the West, in the 19th century women wore a 泳衣 in the water. These were loose ankle-length full-sleeve chemise（英语：chemise）-type gown made of wool or flannel, so that modesty or decency was not threatened.[2] They were long dresses of fabrics that would not become transparent when wet, with weights sewn into the hems so that they would not rise up in the water. The men's swim suit, a rather form-fitting wool garment with long sleeves and legs similar to long underwear, was developed and would change little for a century.

In the 19th century, the woman's double suit was common, comprising a gown from shoulder to knees plus a set of trousers with leggings going down to the ankles. In the first half of the 19th century the top became knee-length while an ankle-length drawer was added as a bottom. By the second half of the 19th century, in France, the sleeves started to vanish, the bottom became shorter to reach only the knees and the top became hip-length and both became more form fitting.[2][5] In the 1900s women wore wool dresses on the beach that were made of up to 9码（8.2米） of fabric.[7]

In the 维多利亚时代, Western cultures deplored nudity of any degree, and people took great pains to cover themselves, even bare chested male swimmers at ocean beaches.[来源请求] Popular beach resorts were commonly equipped with bathing machine（英语：bathing machine）s designed to avoid the exposure of people in swimsuits, especially to people of the opposite sex.

In the United States, 选美活动s of women in bathing costumes became popular from the 1880s. However, such events were not regarded as respectable. Beauty contests became more respectable with the first modern "美利坚小姐" contest held in 1921, though less respectable beauty contests continued to be held.

  •  
    乔治·杜穆里埃于1877年在Punch创作的卡通片展示了男士和儿童泳衣
  •  
    1876-1880的美国泳衣
  •  
    1885的美国泳衣
  •  
    1890–1895的美国泳衣

20世纪早期

 
 
Annette Kellerman（英语：Annette Kellerman）的合身连体式坦克装（英语：Maillot）（1907）启发了奥林匹克运动会早期（1912）的女性泳装

1907年澳大利亚的游泳运动员Annette Kellerman（英语：Annette Kellerman）作为水下芭蕾舞演员访问美国，她的连体泳衣露出了手腿和脖子。[2]与当时的男士泳装相似。

到1910年，连体泳衣成为欧洲部分地区女性公认的泳装。[8]

已隐藏部分未翻译内容，欢迎参与翻译。

In 1907, the swimmer Annette Kellerman（英语：Annette Kellerman） from Australia visited the United States as an "underwater ballerina", a version of 花样游泳 involving diving into glass tanks. Her swimsuit showed arms, legs and the neck, a costume she adopted from England,[2] and which was similar to men's swimsuits of the time. Kellerman changed the suit to have long arms and legs and a collar, still keeping the close fit that revealed the shapes underneath. Kellerman marketed a line of bathing suits and her style of one-piece suits came to be known as "the Annette Kellerman". The one-piece swimming tights became accepted swimsuit attire for women in parts of Europe by 1910.[8] 时尚芭莎 praised the Kellerman swimsuit, writing in June 1920 (vol. 55, no. 6, p. 138) "Annette Kellerman Bathing Attire is distinguished by an incomparable, daring beauty of fit that always remains refined." The following year, in June 1921 (vol. 54, no. 2504, p. 101) it wrote that these bathing suits were "famous ... for their perfect fit and exquisite, plastic beauty of line."[2]

1910

 
 
海滩（1915）和杂志（1916）的Maillot-style泳装。

尽管一些团体反对，泳装仍开始进一步缩水。露出手臂，然后露出大腿。领口从脖子周围退到胸部顶部周围。

已隐藏部分未翻译内容，欢迎参与翻译。

Despite opposition from some groups, the form-fitting style proved popular. It was not long before swimwear started to shrink further. At first arms were exposed and then legs up to mid-thigh. Necklines receded from around the neck down to around the top of the bosom. The development of new fabrics allowed for new varieties of more comfortable and practical swimwear.

Female swimming was introduced at the 1912 Summer Olympics（英语：Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics）. Competitors from 17 countries took part, with women from nine countries wearing swimsuits similar to Kellerman's swimsuit, which were similar to swimsuits worn by the male swimmers. In 1913, inspired by the breakthrough, the designer Carl Jantzen（英语：Carl Jantzen） made the first functional two-piece swimwear, a close-fitting one-piece with shorts on the bottom and short sleeves on top.[9] Silent films such as The Water Nymph（英语：The Water Nymph） (1912) saw Mabel Normand（英语：Mabel Normand） in revealing attire, and this was followed by the daringly dressed Sennett Bathing Beauties (1915–1929). The name "swim suit" was coined in 1915 by Jantzen Knitting Mills, a sweater manufacturer who launched a swimwear brand named the Red Diving Girl.[10] The first annual bathing-suit day at New York's 麦迪逊广场花园 in 1916 was a landmark.[11] The swimsuit apron, a design for early swimwear, disappeared by 1918, leaving a tunic covering the shorts.[12]

Public nudity was a major concern in designing early swimwear. It was a major factor behind the non-participation of American women in the 1912 Olympics.[13] At those Games, British women wore full-body silk suits of such a volume that they could be passed through a wedding ring. The suits were complemented by 胸罩 and 比基尼泳衣-style briefs as they became transparent when wet. Women's coaches were rare at early Olympics, and to further reduce the chances of harassment women were accompanied by chaperones（英语：Chaperone (social)）.[14] Even men wore 连体泳衣s covering the body from hips to shoulders up to the 1940s.[15]

1920

 
American 1920s woman's bathing suit

During the 1920s and 1930s, people began to shift from "taking in the water" to "taking in the sun", at bathhouses and spas, and swimsuit designs shifted from functional considerations to incorporate more decorative features. 嫘萦 was used in the 1920s in the manufacture of tight-fitting swimsuits,[7] but its durability, especially when wet, proved problematic,[16] with jersey（英语：Jersey (fabric)） and 丝绸 also sometimes being used.[17][18]

Burlesque（英语：Burlesque） and 歌舞杂耍表演 performers wore two-piece outfits in the 1920s. The 1929 film 持摄影机的人 shows Russian women wearing early two-piece swimsuits which expose their midriff, and a few who are topless. Films of holidaymakers in Germany in the 1930s show women wearing two-piece suits,[19] In 1928, 速比涛 introduced their racerback silk suit that was optimized to fit the body shape.[20][21]

1930

 
奥斯卡金像奖 winner actress 珍·惠曼 lounging on a California beach, 1935

By the 1930s men began to go without shirts for swimming,[22] and barechestedness in male swimwear became the norm by the end of the 1940s, including in competitive swimming events, in which men are not only barechested, but wear a swimming suit that is intended merely to meet public decency requirements. The norm of male barechestedness in swimwear extended to other competitive sports, such as professional boxing and professional wrestling.

By the 1930s, necklines plunged at the back, sleeves disappeared and sides were cut away and tightened. With the development of new clothing materials, particularly 乳胶 and 尼龙, through the 1930s swimsuits gradually began hugging the body, with shoulder straps that could be lowered for tanning.[12] Hollywood endorsed the new glamour with films such as Neptune's Daughter（英语：Neptune's Daughter (1949 film)） (1949) in which Esther Williams（英语：Esther Williams） wore provocatively named costumes such as "Double Entendre" and "Honey Child".[23] Williams, who also was an Amateur Athletic Union（英语：Amateur Athletic Union） champion in the 100 meter 自由泳 (1939)[24][25] also portrayed Kellerman in the 1952 film Million Dollar Mermaid（英语：Million Dollar Mermaid） (titled as The One Piece Bathing Suit in UK).[26] American designer Adele Simpson（英语：Adele Simpson）, a Coty American Fashion Critics' Awards（英语：Coty Award） winner (1947) and a notable alumna of the New York art school 普瑞特艺术学院, who believed clothes must be comfortable and practical designed a large part of her wardrobe which included mostly one-piece suits that were considered fashionable even in the early 1980s.[27] This was when Cole of California started marketing revealing prohibition suits and Catalina Swimwear（英语：Catalina Swimwear） introduced almost bare-back designs.[28]

可可·香奈尔 made suntans fashionable,[23] and in 1932 French designer 玛德琳·薇欧奈 offered an exposed midriff in an evening gown. They were seen a year later in Gold Diggers of 1933（英语：Gold Diggers of 1933）. The Busby Berkeley（英语：Busby Berkeley） film Footlight Parade（英语：Footlight Parade） of 1932 showcases 花样游泳 that featured bikinis. Dorothy Lamour（英语：Dorothy Lamour）'s The Hurricane（英语：The Hurricane (1937 film)） (1937) also showed two-piece bathing suits.[19] The 1934 film, Fashions of 1934（英语：Fashions of 1934） featured chorus girls wearing two-piece outfits which look identical to modern bikinis.[29] In 1934, a National Recreation Association study on the use of leisure time found that swimming, encouraged by the freedom of movement the new swimwear designs provided, was second only to movies in popularity as free time activity out of a list of 94 activities.[2] In 1935 American designer Claire McCardell（英语：Claire McCardell） cut out the side panels of a maillot-style bathing suit, the bikini's forerunner.[30] The 1938 invention of the Telescopic Watersuit in shirred elastic cotton ushered into the end the era of wool. Cotton sun-tops, printed with palm trees, and silk or rayon pyjamas, usually with a blouse top, became popular by 1939.[23]

Speedo racerback silk suit that uncovered the 肩胛骨 almost resulted in disqualification of 克莱尔·丹尼斯 at the 1932 Olympics,[31] but became a norm by 1936.[32] Meanwhile, men were allowed to swim in bare-chest suits in 1936, and in briefs only at the 1948 Olympics.[20][33]

1940

Wartime production during 第二次世界大战 required vast amounts of 棉花, 丝绸, 尼龙, 羊毛, 皮革, and 天然橡胶. In 1942, the United States 战时生产委员会 issued Regulation L-85, cutting the use of natural fibers in clothing[34] and mandating a 10% reduction in the amount of fabric in women's beachwear.[35] To comply with the regulations, swimsuit manufacturers produced two-piece suits with bare midriffs.[36] The fabric shortage continued for some time after the end of the war.

Women's swimwear of the 1930s and 1940s incorporated increasing degrees of midriff exposure（英语：midriff exposure）. Teen magazines of late 1940s and 1950s featured similar designs of midriff-baring suits and tops. However, midriff fashion was stated as only for beaches and informal events and considered indecent to be worn in public.[37]

Because of the figure-hugging nature of these garments, 魅力摄影 since the 1940s and 1950s has often featured people wearing swimsuits. This type of glamour photography eventually evolved into swimsuit photography exemplified by the annual 运动画刊泳装特辑. Beauty contests also required contestants to wear form-fitting swimsuits.

Two-piece swimsuits without the usual skirt panel and other superfluous material started appearing in the U.S. when the government ordered the 10% reduction in fabric used in woman's swimwear in 1943 as wartime rationing.[35] By that time, two-piece swimsuits were ubiquitous on American beaches. The July 9, 1945, 生活 (杂志) shows women in 巴黎 wearing similar items. 美国电影 stars like 艾娃·加德纳, 丽塔·海华丝 and 拉娜·特纳 tried similar swimwear or 泳衣.[38] 海报女郎 of Hayworth and Esther Williams（英语：Esther Williams） in the costume were widely distributed.[9] The most provocative swimsuit was the 1946 Moonlight Buoy, a bottom and a top of material that weighed only eight ounces. What made the Moonlight Buoy distinctive was a large 软木 (材料) 带扣 attached to the bottoms, which made it possible to tie the top to the cork buckle and splash around 天然主义 while keeping both parts of the suit afloat. 生活 (杂志) magazine had a 影像式论文 on the Moonlight Buoy and wrote, "The name of the suit, of course, suggests the nocturnal conditions under which nude swimming is most agreeable."[39]

1950

Swimwear of the 1940s, 50s and early 60s followed the 剪影 mostly from the early 1930s whereas after 第二次世界大战, a new wardrobe and style of vacation-swimwear arose, coupled with an increase of leisure time and bustling postwar resorts.[40] In 1951, a huge celebration called "The Festival of Britain" was promoted of everything new and modern and cast a line into the future, building on a feeling of hope.[41] Beachwear style were very popular in U.S and Europe,[40] but this fashion originated on the 蔚蓝海岸, which people was quoted this place as "A sunny place for shady people".[41] Keeping in line with the ultra-feminine look dominated by 克里斯汀·迪奥 (品牌) which brought out his one and only collection of swimwear for the Cole of California in 1955.[41] He designed a series of floral printed swimsuits with halter neckline style. It evolved into a dress followed his New Look silhouette with cinched waists and constructed bustlines, accessorized with earrings, bracelets, hats, scarves, sunglasses, hand bags and cover-ups.[42] American Women inspired by Hollywood's film stars For example, Doris Day offering a 'girl-next-door' look and the accession and coronation of the young Queen Elizabeth in February 1952 and June 1953 respectively.[43]

For the early 50s, despite the reaction to the 比基尼泳衣 worn by Brigitte Bardot in Manina, the Girl in the Bikini（英语：Manina, the Girl in the Bikini） in 1952, most women in the 1950s still wore one-piece suits.[40] To increasing female emancipation and realized the commercial possibilities of beauty pageants, big companies launched beauty contests to find girls who could help promote products, believing that a picture of a pretty girl in a swimsuit was the best promotion. Instead of swimsuits, these contests popularized the 连身短裤, but swimsuits remained the highlight in the beauty contest.[41]

The first bikinis appeared just after 第二次世界大战. Early examples were not very different from the women's two pieces common since the 1920s, except that they had a gap below the breast line allowing for a section of bare midriff. They were named after 比基尼环礁, the site of several nuclear weapons tests, for their supposed explosive effect on the viewer. Beside 克里斯汀·迪奥, some designers also launched the swimwear collection, such as Bob and Bill Meistrell of body glove and Robert and Jack O'Neill of the surf brand O'Neill.[41] Many of these pre-bikinis had fancy names like Double Entendre, Honey Child (to maximize 乳房), Shipshape (to minimize 乳房), Diamond Lil (trimmed with 仿制金刚石s and 蕾丝), Swimming In Mink (trimmed with 皮草 across the bodice（英语：bodice）) and Spearfisherman (heavy poplin（英语：poplin） with a rope belt for carrying a knife), Beau Catcher, Leading Lady, Pretty Foxy, Side Issue, Forecast, and Fabulous Fit.[39] However, the bikini was banned from the Miss World contest, following the crowning of Miss Sweden（英语：Miss Sweden）. Some people declared the bikini to be morally "indecent". Even in Europe in 1950, there was an Italian magazine also declared that the bikini should be worn purely for the sunbathing purposes or on board boats.[41]

According to Vogue (杂志) the swimwear had become more of "state of dress, not undress" by the mid-1950s.[42] Bikini had a colorful period on the cinema screens and made an impact in the late 50s, inspired by the film such as 上帝创造女人 by 罗杰·华汀, launched Bardot into the spotlight and became the benchmark for bikini on celluloid. Also, her outfit sets a whole new trend for sex symbols.[41]

Starting in the 1940s, the manufacturing advances enabled swimsuits to fit without the help of elastic, and aid as performance aid in competitive swimming.[41] In the early 1950s, other synthetics beside the screen print technique was being developed, such as polyester and acrylic, with quick-drying properties. In U.S, the 夏威夷州an -日本ese- inspired prints were often used. In Europe, Emilio Pucci（英语：Emilio Pucci） moved swimwear textile on a generation when he began to design prints for Rose Marrie Reid swimwear.[40] By the late 1950s, new materials were developed and applied on the corsetry swimwear, such as Lastex（英语：Lastex）, a fabric woven from artificial chromspun acetate that used for a more tightly fitted appearance.

速比涛 produced the wool and cotton swimwear for the Melbourne Olympics in 1956.[41] In 1956, Speedo became the first company to introduce 尼龙.[44]

Men's swimsuits developed roughly in parallel to women's during this period, with the shorts covering progressively less. Racing-style "speedo" suits became popular, as did 丁字裤s, G弦裤s and 比基尼泳衣 style briefs. Typically these are more popular in more 热带 regions; however, they may also be worn at public 游泳池s and inland lakes.

1960

In 1964 designer Rudi Gernreich（英语：Rudi Gernreich） conceived and produced the monokini,[45] a revolutionary and controversial design included a bottom that "extended from the midriff to the upper thigh"[46] and was "held up by shoestring laces that make a halter around the neck."[47][45]

1970

In the 1970s Speedo added 氨纶 to their swimsuits that improved their elasticity, durability and reduced water drag – 21 out of 22 records at the 1972 Olympics were broken using nylon/elastane suits.[20]

At the same Olympics, East German swimmers adopted suits that were tightly following the body shape, the so-called "skinsuits". They were initially made of cotton and became virtually transparent when wet. The revealing shape and transparency caused outrage among US swimmers; meanwhile, at the 1973 World Aquatics Championships（英语：1973 World Aquatics Championships）, East German women won 10 of 14 events and set seven world records. Those championships became the turning point for the world to adopt the skinsuit, modified with novel synthetic materials, as a standard competitive swimwear.[48]

1980

In 1985, Gernreich unveiled the lesser known pubikini（英语：pubikini）, a bathing suit meant to expose 阴毛.[49] The pubikini is a small piece of fabric that hugs the hips and buttocks but leaves the pubic region exposed,[50] described as a tiny V-shaped fabric strip and a piece de resistance totally freeing the human body.[51] It featured a thong-style bottom[52] while the front was a tiny V-shaped strip of fabric that dipped below the woman's 阴阜, exposing her 阴毛 and portions of her 女阴.[50][53] This was his last design, four weeks before his death.[54][55]

1990

Tankini（英语：Tankini） and the concept of mix-and-match swimwears were the two major innovations in that genre in the late 1990s.[56] Designer Anne Cole（英语：Anne Cole）, the US swimwear mogul, was the originator of this style.[57] Hailed as the first major innovation in women's swimsuit design in several decades, the two-piece tankini blended the freedom of a bikini with the more modest coverage of a one-piece bathing suit, and quickly captured nearly a third of the swimwear market.[58][59] Aimed at closing a gap in the swimwear market, the popularity of tankini largely came from Cole's tapping into women's anxieties about swimwear.[60] In the years following its introduction tankinis diversified in style and range, adding other big name designers such as 拉尔夫·劳伦, 唐娜·卡兰, 诺帝卡, and 卡尔文·克雷恩 (设计师).[61]

For men, longer and baggier shorts became popular in this era, with the hems often reaching to the knees. Often called boardshorts and swim trunks, these were worn lower on the hips than regular shorts.

2000

In 2005, a controversy broke out when 佛教s complained against swimwear manufacturer Ondade Mar and lingerie giant 维多利亚的秘密 started marketing tankinis featuring Buddhist iconography.[62] In the same year 耐克's breast cancer awareness swimwear collection featured four different cuts of tankini.[63]

In 2000, Speedo launched the 速比涛 suit series that mimicked shark skin. Their surface contained bumps and ridges that channeled the water over the swimmer's body approximately 3% more efficiently than traditional materials.[64][65] Those suits covered most of the body, from neck to ankles and wrists, and their shape was optimized for specific swimming strokes, compressing some body parts while allowing more freedom to the others.[66][67] Those suits were approved for the 2000 Olympics, where they helped win 83% of the medals.[64] By the next Olympics, similar suits had been developed by Tyr Sport, Inc.（英语：Tyr Sport, Inc.）, but they were not approved by the 世界水上运动.[68]

In July 2009, 世界水上运动 voted to ban non-textile (non-woven) swimsuits in competitive events from 2010. The new policy was implemented to combat the issues associated with performance enhancing costumes, hindering the ability to accurately measure the performance of swimmers. Subsequently, the new ruling states that men's swimsuits may maximally cover the area from the navel to the knee, and women's counterparts from the shoulder to the knee.[69][70]

2010

2009年7月，世界水上运动投票决定禁止在2010年的比赛项目中使用非纺织（无纺布）泳衣。男士泳衣可以最大限度地覆盖从肚脐到膝盖的区域，而女士泳衣则可以最大限度地覆盖从肩膀到膝盖的区域。

参见

参考

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Byrde, Penelope. That Frightful Unbecoming Dress: Clothes for Spa Bathing at Bath. Costume. 1987, 21 (1): 48–49. ISSN 0590-8876. doi:10.1179/cos.1987.21.1.44. [失效链接]
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Claudia B. Kidwell, Women's Bathing and Swimming Costume in the United States （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Smithsonian Institution Press, City of Washington, 1968
  3. ^ Smollett, Tobias George. The Expedition of Humphry Clinker. New York: The Century Company. 1906: 38–39. 
  4. ^ Cinder, Cec. The Nudist Idea. Ultraviolet Press. 1998: 333. ISBN 978-0-9652085-0-5. 
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 Herbert Sanchez, A Brief History Of Bathing Suits （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Article Garden
  6. ^ Bathing - Jane Austen at the seaside. jasa.net.au. （原始内容存档于14 May 2013）. 
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 Sydelle, John. The Swimsuit Industry. Chron. [29 August 2013]. （原始内容存档于2011-10-15）. 
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 Liz Conor, The spectacular modern woman: feminine visibility in the 1920s, page 152, Indiana University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-253-34391-7
  9. ^ 9.0 9.1 Hoover, Elizabeth D. 60 Years of Bikinis. American Heritage（英语：American Heritage (magazine)）. 5 July 2006 [13 November 2007]. （原始内容存档于9 September 2007）. 
  10. ^ The Beginning History of Swimwear 互联网档案馆的存档，存档日期2015-09-23., Global Intimate Wear, 08-07-2012
  11. ^ Jean Preer, "The Postmaster General and "The Magazine for Men （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）" Prologue（英语：Prologue (magazine)）, page 1, Spring 1990, Vol. 23, No. 1, U.S. National Archives and Records Administration
  12. ^ 12.0 12.1 History of the Bikini. Carnival. [2023-02-09]. （原始内容存档于2008-05-16）. 
  13. ^ Shelton, Sandi Kahn (4 August 2012) Women swimmers bucked tide of sexism to compete in Olympics 100 years ago; SCSU librarian's book says competition deemed 'too unfemale' (video). nhregister.com
  14. ^ Manning, Jo (11 August 2008) First champ 'would be thrilled'. BBC
  15. ^ Daily News, pp. 1, 5
  16. ^ Kadolph, Sara J.; Langford, Anna L. Textiles 9. Prentice Hall. 2001. ISBN 0-13-025443-6. 
  17. ^ Vintage Swimwear Timeline. Glamoursurf. [August 29, 2013]. （原始内容存档于2009-02-02）. 
  18. ^ Vintage Swimwear. [March 1, 2018]. [失效链接]
  19. ^ 19.0 19.1 The Bikini （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, 大都会艺术博物馆
  20. ^ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Our History 互联网档案馆的存档，存档日期2014-06-22.. speedo.com.au
  21. ^ Daily News, p. 6
  22. ^ Meagan Hess. Skirting the Skirts at the Bathing Beach. Xroads.virginia.edu. [2013-06-15]. （原始内容存档于2013-06-19）. 
  23. ^ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Sandhu, David. Nottingham: Bathed in nostalgia. 每日电讯报 (London). August 4, 2003 [2023-02-09]. （原始内容存档于2022-10-04）. 
  24. ^ THE 1930s: Sports: Overview 互联网档案馆的存档，存档日期2011-07-23., Novel Guide
  25. ^ Esther Williams （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Everything2
  26. ^ Steven Anzovin（英语：Steven Anzovin） & Janet Podell, Famous First Facts, page 51, H.W. Wilson, 2000, ISBN 0-8242-0958-3
  27. ^ Gayle Kimball, Women's Culture: The Women's Renaissance of the Seventies, page 141, Scarecrow Press, 1981, ISBN 0-8108-1455-2
  28. ^ Kathleen Morgan Drowne & Patrick Huber, The 1920s, page 104, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004, ISBN 0-313-32013-6
  29. ^ 互联网电影数据库（IMDb）上《Fashions of 1934》的资料（英文）
  30. ^ Samantha Critchell, "Little wonder that bikinis have fit in almost from the start 互联网档案馆的存档，存档日期2008-12-25.", The San Diego Union-Tribune（英语：The San Diego Union-Tribune）, 2006-05-28
  31. ^ Dennis, Clara (Clare) (1916–1971). Dennis, Clara (Clare) (1916–1971) Biographical Entry. Australian Dictionary of Biography Online (Australian National University). [15 January 2011]. （原始内容存档于2011-04-12）. 
  32. ^ Daily News, p. 7
  33. ^ Daily News, p. 8
  34. ^ World War II. The Price of Freedom: Americans at War. Smithsonian Institution. [August 30, 2013]. （原始内容存档于2013-10-23）. 
  35. ^ 35.0 35.1 Bikini Introduced 互联网档案馆的存档，存档日期2009-04-19., This Day in History, 历史频道
  36. ^ Bikini. Fashion Encyclopedia. [August 30, 2013]. （原始内容存档于2007-11-21）. 
  37. ^ Claudia Mitchell; Jacqueline Reid-Walsh. Girl Culture: Studying Girl Culture: A Readers' Guide Volume 1 of Girl Culture: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. 2008: 702. ISBN 9780313339097. 
  38. ^ James Kitchling, "Short History of Bikinis and Swimsuits", Articles Central, 2008-08-02
  39. ^ 39.0 39.1 William Oscar Johnson , "In The Swim （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）", Sports Illustrated, 1989-02-07
  40. ^ 40.0 40.1 40.2 40.3 Stevenson, N. J. (2012). Fashion: A visual history from regency & Romance to retro & revolution. New York: The Ivy Press Limited.
  41. ^ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 41.4 41.5 41.6 41.7 41.8 Kennedy, Sarah. The Swimsuit: A History of Twentieth-century Fashions . Carlton Books. 2010. ISBN 978-1-84732-382-8. 
  42. ^ 42.0 42.1 Daniel Delis Hill, As Seen in Vogue, page 63, Texas Tech University Press, 2007, ISBN 0-89672-616-9
  43. ^ Laver, J. (2012). Costume and fashion: A concise history. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd.
  44. ^ Daily News, pp. 9, 12
  45. ^ 45.0 45.1 Alac, Patrik. Bikini Story. Parkstone International. 2012: 68. ISBN 978-1780429519. 
  46. ^ Bikini Styles: Monokini. Everything Bikini. 2005 [13 January 2013]. （原始内容存档于29 July 2012）. 
  47. ^ Nangle, Eleanore. Topless Swimsuit Causes Commotion. 芝加哥论坛报. June 10, 1964 [20 August 2015]. （原始内容存档于2015-09-14）. 
  48. ^ Campbell, Jule (12 August 1974) "Light, Tight And Right For Racing". Sports Illustrated. Archived from the original on February 5, 2013.
  49. ^ Elizabeth Gunther Stewart, Paula Spencer & Dawn Danby, The V Book: A Doctor's Guide to Complete Vulvovaginal Health, page 104, Bantam Books, 2002, ISBN 0-553-38114-8
  50. ^ 50.0 50.1 overzero.com. Metroland. [2012-11-12]. （原始内容存档于2012-07-29）. 
  51. ^ Catalog adds options for overweight girls Article 1 of 1 found （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Denver Post, 1992-01-02
  52. ^ Ellen Shultz (编). Recent acquisitions: A Selection, 1985-1986. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1986: 48. ISBN 978-0870994784. 
  53. ^ Elizabeth Gunther Stewart, Paula Spencer and Dawn Danby, The V Book, page 104, Bantam Books, 2002, ISBN 0553381148
  54. ^ Klaus Honnef, Helmut Newton and Carol Squiers, Portraits: Photographs from Europe and America, page 21, Schirmer, 2004, ISBN 382960131X
  55. ^ Cathy Horn, "Rudi Revisited", 华盛顿邮报, 1991–11–17, page 03
  56. ^ Valerie Steele, Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion, page 255, Charles Scribner's Sons, 2005, ISBN 0-684-31397-9
  57. ^ Becky Homan, "Tankini goes over the top （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）", Page 42, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 1999-04-03
  58. ^ Laura Avery, Newsmakers '07: Cumulation page 117, Thomson Gale, 2007, ISBN 0-7876-8091-5
  59. ^ Rose Apodaca Jones, "Five decades in the swim", WWD, Fairchild Publications, 2001-04-23
  60. ^ Laura Avery & Thomson Gale, Newsmakers: Cumulation, page 118, Thomson Gale, 2007, ISBN 0-7876-8091-5
  61. ^ Bridget Quinn, "Stickline: Swimsuit Fashion for Women", Washington Post, 2005-06-22
  62. ^ Lisa Nakamura, Digitizing Race, page 186, University of Minnesota Press, 2007, ISBN 0-8166-4613-9
  63. ^ Samantha Critchell, "Cancer charities pink at heart", St. Petersburg Times, 2005-09-29
  64. ^ 64.0 64.1 A revolutionary swimsuit. European Patent Office (2009)
  65. ^ Murphy, Sean (19 April 2000) Fastskin fastalk: hype or help? abc.net.au
  66. ^ Daily News, p. 14
  67. ^ Nasr, Susan L. [1] [2] Can a swimsuit make you swim faster? science.howstuffworks.com
  68. ^ TYR Appeals Ban of Arm Bands （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）. collegeswimming.com. 8 June 2004
  69. ^ Administrator. Fédération Internationale de Natation - fina.org - FINA General Congress. fina.org. （原始内容存档于2015-09-23）. 
  70. ^ FINA bans hi-tech suits from 2010 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） BBC, 31 July 2009

来源

检索自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=泳裝史&oldid=84340101”