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意大利入侵英属索马里兰
第二次世界大战东非战役的一部分

1940年8月，意大利征服英属索马里兰
日期1940年8月3日—19日
(2周2天)
地点
英属索马里兰
09°33′N 44°04′E / 9.550°N 44.067°E / 9.550; 44.067
结果 意大利胜利
领土变更 英属索马里兰并入义属东非[a]
参战方

 意大利

指挥官与领导者
兵力
4,507名英军及英联邦部队[b] 24,000名义军及其殖民地部队
伤亡与损失
总数：2,275人
大英帝国：
50人战死
105人负伤
120人失踪
索马里（服役于英军）
约2,000人
7架飞机摧毁
10架飞机受损
1搜拖船损失
2艘船舰受损

总数：3,029人
意大利：161人及阿斯卡里（英语：Royal Corps of Colonial Troops）：1,868人

  • 465人战死
  • 1,530人负伤
  • 34人失踪
索马里班达（英语：Bands (Italian Army irregulars)）
约1,000人
4架飞机摧毁

意大利入侵英属索马里兰（1940年8月3日—19日）是1940—1941年间东非战役的一部分，当时法西斯意大利集结义、厄、索等部队入侵英属索马里兰，击败了当地的英军卫戍部队、英联邦及由索马里非正规军支援的殖民地部队。义军的胜利源于机动与速度，但受阻于地形、雨天气候及英军的抵抗。

8月11日—15日间的图格阿甘山口战役（英语：Battle of Tug Argan）中，义军挟着火炮优势发起进攻，寡不敌众的守军最终逐渐被消耗殆尽，且逐步遭到包抄，直到剩下布防的山顶变得孤立而一一遭到攻占。向米尔戈隘道发起的反及失利后，当地的指挥官里德·戈德温-奥斯丁（英语：Alfred Reade Godwin-Austen）少将的兵力已变得太少，以至于无法挽救败局，同时也无法确保撤往柏培拉的路线。

8月17日，英军在巴卡桑（Barkasan）发起后卫行动，并于天黑后撤离，但临时撤退行动进展得比想像还顺利，因此他们无须在纳西耶（Nasiyeh）设立第二道防线。雨天的气候持续拖慢义军的推进，而当他们发现柏培拉附近的机场仍有敌军驻防时，先前义军规划的奇袭（英语：Coup de main）行动便不切实际。英军之败引发争议，使得战区指挥官阿奇博尔德·韦维尔将军开始与其下属以及温斯顿·丘吉尔首相之间发生冲突，最终导致韦维尔于1941年7月被克劳德·奥金莱克取代。

背景

义属东非

参见：第二次意大利埃塞俄比亚战争和义属东非

1936年5月9日，意大利独裁者贝尼托·墨索里尼正式宣布义属东非成立（意大利语：Africa Orientale Italiana，AOI），合并自义属厄立特里亚、义属索马里兰，以及于1935年10月3日—1936年5月5日间征服的埃塞俄比亚帝国。[1]1940年6月10日，墨索里尼向英、法两国宣战，使得英军沿着地中海—苏伊士运河—红海一线的补给线受到非洲义军的威胁。[2]埃及与苏伊士运河成为明显的目标，而义军入侵法属索马利（吉布提）或英属索马里兰也变得可行。墨索里尼期待能宣传在苏丹、英属东非（肯亚（英语：Kenya Colony）、坦干伊喀（英语：Tanganyika Territory）、乌干达）等地的胜利。然而，义军参谋部的战略估计则是假定不会早于1942年开战；意大利皇家陆军及皇家空军（英语：Regia Aeronautica）对长期战争并未有所准备，也未准备占领大片非洲土地。[2]

中东司令部

参见：中东司令部

埃及王国当时含括苏丹地区，后者系由英、埃两国共管。自1882年以来，英国在埃及土地上均驻有军队，但已根据《1936年英埃条约（英语：Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936）》大幅缩减规模，该条约只允许英军在需保卫苏伊士运河的情况下占领埃及。[3] 小股英军及国协各国部队驻扎在苏伊士运河与红海线上，那是英国本土与远东及印度洋地区的生命线。1939年中，阿奇博尔德·韦维尔被任命为新设立的中东司令部的将军总司令（英语：General Officer Commanding-in-Chief），负责保卫地中海及中东地区。《法义停战协定（英语：Franco-Italian Armistice）》签订之时，意大利第五军团在的黎波里塔尼亚与突尼斯的法军相持，而意大利第十军团则在昔兰尼加与埃及英军对峙。[4]

意大利皇家陆军在利比亚及埃及地区共有21.5万人左右，而当地英军则约有3.6万人，另有2.75万人在巴勒斯坦受训。[4]韦维尔只有8.6万人，需要分散投入到利比亚、伊拉克、叙利亚（英语：Mandatory Syrian Republic）、伊朗及东非等地。面临每英里平均仅有八人保卫的窘境，韦维尔认定防御战略是唯一可行的策略，并打算在主要哨所采取拖延行动，以期获得最好的结果。1940年底，英国外相安东尼·伊登在喀土木召开会议，与埃塞俄比亚皇帝海尔·塞拉西一世、南非扬·史末资将军（温斯顿·丘吉尔的区域顾问）、韦维尔、东非高阶军事指挥官（包含普拉特少将（英语：William Platt）及康宁汉少将）等人会晤。会中决定对埃塞俄比亚用兵，包含投入埃塞俄比亚爱国者（英语：Arbegnoch）。11月，英国布莱切利园的政府密码学校破译了东非意大利皇家陆军的高阶密码，让英军与英联邦部队取得情报优势。当月稍晚，意大利皇家空军（英语：Regia Aeronautica）更换的新式密码也遭中东联合局（Combined Bureau, Middle East）破译。[5]

英属索马里兰

 
索马里兰区域划分

1900年—1920年间，英国在索马里兰战役中对抗迪里耶·古雷（法语：Diiriye Guure）的德尔维希国，以其夺取控制当地领土。[6]1910年，英国驻军被迫撤到岸边直到一战结束，但之后当地部队与国王非洲步枪队（英语：King's African Rifles）和英国皇家空军用三周时间发起进攻，以四场战役便于1920年结束索马里兰的抵抗。索马里兰殖民地拥有约68,000平方英里（180,000平方千米）的平坦土地，海岸纵深最多达60英里（97千米），尽头是平均4,000英尺（1,200米）高的山脉。[7]

当地农业发展空间很小，32万名居民中多数以畜牧业为生。该区最大的城市与港口是柏培拉，周围是沙漠和灌木丛；寒冷季节时人口为三万，夏季时则降为一万五千人。柏培拉港是一流的锚地，也是殖民地的主要转口港。但该港没有港口设施，并不适合远征军，因为船只必须用驳船卸货，这种方法需要十天才能清空3,000容积总吨的船舶。由于当地的七月至八月间是强热风（阿拉伯语：Kharif‎）吹拂期，因此该段时间无法进行装卸作业。[7]

法属索马里兰

主条目：第二次世界大战期间的法属索马里兰（英语：French Somaliland in World War II）
 
1938—1941年间的，图中显示其与亚丁、英属索马里兰以及法属索马里兰的相对位置

自战争爆发而阻碍《法义停战协定（英语：Franco-Italian Armistice）》的执行以来，指挥英法联军的保罗·勒让蒂霍姆（英语：Paul Legentilhomme）准将持续与英国合作。7月27日，英国人发现针对法属索马里兰的停战协定条款，包括殖民地非军事化以及意大利能自由进出港口与法属区域的亚的斯亚贝巴铁路。当休伯特·德尚（法语：Hubert Deschamps (historien)）总督（英语：List of governors of French Somaliland）表明他会遵循维琪政权的指示时，勒让蒂霍姆威胁将动用军队阻止他。当地意大利停战委员会（英语：Italian Armistice Commission）尝试与其联系时，勒让蒂霍姆向开罗方面保证他会争取时间，但也预期义军会发起进攻。[8]

黑卫士兵团第二营在埃及登舰，乘坐巡洋舰抵达亚丁准备增援法军，而勒让蒂霍姆则假装不知停战协定。勒让蒂霍姆还拒绝新任维希法国总督马克西姆·热尔曼（法语：Maxime Germain）入境。7月19日的总督委员会上，勒让蒂霍姆遭到海军及空军指挥官群反对，而且为了避免流血冲突，决定将反对维琪政权的派系逐出。勒让蒂霍姆的时间所剩无几，后于8月5日出逃亚丁，让热尔曼宣布对英国断交。义军对于英军仍可能使用该殖民地作为桥头堡感到担忧，而皮埃尔·努瓦赫塔斯（英语：Pierre Nouailhetas）则于8月7日取代热尔曼成为新任总督，后于9月2日自法国抵达当地。[9]

前奏

英军防御计划

 
吉布提（法属索马里兰）地理

索马里兰边境长达750英里（1,210千米），意大利占领埃塞俄比亚后，除法属索马里兰45英里（72千米）的边境外，其他所有区域都与意大利新殖民地相连。根据1936年的霍恩比报告，英国陆军部打算不对入侵进行抵抗。1938年，总督亚瑟·劳伦斯（Arthur Lawrence）对这种失败主义政策表示遗憾，并建议该殖民地可以非军事化，英军可选择离开或保卫当地。根据英军指挥官亚瑟·查特（英语：Arthur Reginald Chater）皇家海军陆战队准将，少量增援将使当地驻军有能力抵抗敌军入侵达十二天，足以让救援部队从印度抵达，但该策略遭驳回。1939年8月，撤离策略根据两种情境作出修改：如果法军成功守下吉布提，英军会撤往当地与其会合；倘若法军败战，英军会撤入山中等待良机。所有防御安排均是基于与勒让蒂霍姆的合作为前提下执行，战时将交由后者指挥英法联军。[10]

假战期间，韦维尔变得不情愿在完成撤往吉布提的计划实施完成前，将英军交由法军指挥，给予查特更多考量空间去决定是否仍与法军合作。查特期望能在哈尔格萨及布劳驻军，以发起拖延行动然后撤往山区。吉布提到索马里兰的主要道路以群山为主体，其中有六条隘道足以让有轮车辆通过；双方同意必须驻军以阻挡义军，并提供基地以利盟军发起反攻。1939年12月，英军再次改变心意，下令必须抵抗敌军入侵，且为了维护大英帝国的威望，必须尽可能地守住柏培拉。与法国达成的承诺，让他们陷入加强殖民地防线的麻烦及花费；由于勒让蒂霍姆与巴黎当局对英法联盟的分歧，尽管英国殖民地获准修建防御工事，与边界平行的吉勒（英语：Jidhi）及多博（英语：Asha Addo）隘道却都未有设防。[11][12]

 
伦敦皇家炮兵博物馆内展示的3.7英寸山炮（英语：QF 3.7-inch mountain howitzer）

1940年，索马里兰骆驼军（英语：Somaliland Camel Corps）中的631名成员，驻扎于殖民地内的五处所在地，一警察小队则在柏培拉工作。骆驼军计有29辆机动载具、122匹马匹以及244只骆驼，但未有重武器，仅有旧式比利时.475英寸（12.1 mm）口径单发步枪，以及品质存疑的140万发弹药、机枪及反坦步枪。同年二月，英国政府计划于5月中派遣1,100名援军，但战争部及殖民部间的财政纠纷将第一营的抵达时间推迟到5月15日，第二营则延至7月12日。法属索马里兰的守军被要求封锁吉勒及多博隘道，但英军的战略期望当地守军更具诱惑力的目标。[13][11]

英军备战情形

法义停战协议签订后，勒让蒂霍姆的亲英谎言因而结束，导致查特接到指令，需针对无法守成殖民地的情况下去规划撤离方案。[14]到了八月，由北罗德西亚团（英语：Northern Rhodesia Regiment）第一营、国王非洲步枪队（英语：King's African Rifles）第二（尼亚萨兰）营、来自肯亚的第一东非轻炮连（下辖四门3.7英寸山炮（英语：QF 3.7-inch mountain howitzer））、来自亚丁殖民地的第二旁遮普团（英语：2nd Punjab Regiment）第一营与第十五旁遮普团（英语：15th Punjab Regiment）第三营、索马里兰骆驼军以及来自南罗德西亚团（英语：Rhodesia Regiment）的37名军官与士官支援团等组成了守军。8月8日，黑卫士兵团第二营抵达当地。这支守军部队可说是杂牌军，有着不同的制服与厨房安排、没有合适的基地或指挥部、火炮、运输与号志设备短缺。空军飞机必须自亚丁起飞，同时也忙于护航巡逻和防空工作；仅第23团两门3英寸防空炮（英语：QF 3-inch 20 cwt）、香港及新加坡旅可自亚丁调派而来。[15]

 
布伦亨式MK-I型轰炸机（2015年）

英军预期柏培拉将成义军入侵的目标，而当地与埃塞俄比亚的边境过长以至于难以防卫，且没有任何阵地可以争夺经过法属索马里兰附近的塞拉到达港口的通道，并从当地沿海岸公路向东、通过哈尔格萨或是经由布劳。轮式及履带式车辆在内陆山区仅能从哈尔格萨和布劳公路上通过，哈尔格萨是条更为直接的路径，穿越位于图格阿甘（Tug Argan）的缺口，而布劳公路穿过的隘道则被称为谢克关口（Sheikh Pass）。一旦来到山的北侧，沿岸的平原将无险可守，居劣势的部队将无法阻止优势的一方。[16]

查特在图格阿甘驻扎了两个营及山地炮兵，其中一个营首位另外两个通道，另一个则作为预备队。当黑卫士兵团抵达时便划入预备队，两个旁遮普团则用于增援图格阿拉甘。骆驼兵团在主要防御工事前形成一道屏障以利观察及迟滞敌军，并以索马里警察部队（英语：Somali Police Force）（Illalo）作为巡逻队，该部队是边防武装警察部队。[16]亚丁的英国皇家空军计有第8中队（英语：No. 8 Squadron RAF）（配备布伦亨式轰炸机及两架自由法国的马丁马里兰式轰炸机（英语：Martin Maryland））、第11中队（英语：No. 11 Squadron RAF）、第39中队（英语：No. 39 Squadron RAF）、第45中队（英语：No. 45 Squadron RAF）（配备布伦亨式）和第203中队（英语：No. 203 Squadron RAF）（配备布伦亨式IVF长程战斗机）、第94中队（英语：No. 94 Squadron RAF）（配备格斗士战斗机）、第223中队（英语：No. 223 Squadron RAF）（维客思威斯利轰炸机（英语：Vickers Wellesley））。8月15日，一架第216中队（英语：No. 216 Squadron RAF）的孟买轰炸机（英语：Bristol Bombay）参战，另外第84中队（英语：No. 84 Squadron RAF）也移转到亚丁以弥补损失。[17]

义军计划

 
意大利皇家空军（英语：Regia Aeronautica）的IMAM Ro.37 Lince (Lynx)侦察机

意大利人仍然对法国的意图心存疑虑，在热尔曼取代勒让蒂霍姆后，他们依然担心英军会透过吉布提入侵。尽管罗马方面下令谨慎行动，奥斯塔公爵还是想占领吉布提以对英军先发制人，同时向柏培拉推进以阻击英军的干预。6月18日，奥斯塔公爵像墨索里尼上交了军事计划，并于八月取得发动入侵的批准。等待批准期间，奥斯塔公爵及其副官古格列莫·纳西（英语：Guglielmo Nasi）将军完成了对可能的敌军及战役目标的评估；7月14日，他们预测主要战斗将会于卡里姆及杰拉托隘道（Karim and Jerato passes）打响；如果守军坚守阵地，义军就能包抄他们的侧翼。[18]意大利入侵军包含五个殖民地旅、黑衫军的三个营和五个班德（Bande），半个连的M11/39中型坦克以及一个中队的L3/35轻战车、一些装甲车辆、21个榴弹炮台、山炮及空军支援。[19][20]

 
意大利晚邮报头版报导义军发动索马里兰攻势

7月25日，卡洛·德·西蒙尼（英语：Carlo De Simone）中将以主力军指挥官身份，对麾下哈拉尔（Harrar）师下辖的三个旅、十一个非洲步兵营、三个黑衫军营、坦克和装甲车下达指令。[21]透过击败驻军并占领英属索马里兰，阻止英法两军联合起来并获得增援来攻击哈拉尔。[21] Because the Assa Hills rose to over 4,500英尺（1,400米）, parallel to the coast about 50 mi（80 km） inland, there were three approaches to Berbera for wheeled and tracked vehicles for the Italians to consider.[20]

The direct route with the widest pass was via Hargeisa and the Italian plan was for the western column to seal off French Somaliland and then send light forces east along the coast road.[20] The eastern column (Brigadier-General Arturo Bertello) would move to Odweina and Burao in the south, cover the flank of the central column and be prepared to link up with it if necessary. De Simone with the central column would establish a base at Hargeisa and Adalek, then to carry the main weight of the attack through the Mirgo Pass towards Berbera. The western column (Lieutenant-General Sisto Bertoldi) was to advance towards Zeila to seal the border with French Somaliland and then move eastwards along the coast road towards Berbera.[20]

战役过程

 
A Savoia-Marchetti SM 81

On 31 July 18° Squadriglie arrived at the Scelene airstrip near Dire Dawa with six Ca 133 bomber/transport aircraft. On 1 August Comando Tattico dell Settore Aeronautica Ovest (CTSAO, Western Sector Tactical Command) was created for the invasion of British Somaliland. At first the CTSAO (Generale Collalti) had 27 bombers, 23 fighters and seven reconnaissance aircraft.[22] During the afternoon, flights of three SM 81 bombers, attacked shipping off Zeila as two waves of six Blenheim Mk Is from 8 and 39 squadrons, escorted by two 203 Squadron Blenheim IVFs, bombed the Italian airfield at Chinele, which had been discovered that morning.[23]

The Blenheims dived to 10,000英尺（3,000米） through anti-aircraft fire as CR 42 fighters of 410° Squadriglie scrambled from Dire Dawa (8 mi（13 km） away) and attacked the Blenheim IVFs. As the second wave of six Blenheims arrived, Captaino Corrado Ricci, the commander of 410° Squadriglie, took off in his CR 32 and shot one down. As the Blenheims flew home over Zeila, the crews spotted a flight of the SM 81 bombers attacking the port. Three Blenheims broke formation and shot down one of the Italian bombers. On the morning of 2 August, 39 Squadron raided Chinele aerodrome again and were intercepted by CR 42s of 413° Squadriglia; the CR 42 of the CO Capitano Corrado Santoro, was hit in the engine and force landed.[24]

On 3 August 1940, British air reconnaissance discovered that about 400 Italians had crossed the frontier at Biyad. Nasi communicated with de Simone by wireless and liaison aircraft; the central column crossed the frontier and made for Hargeisa and Tug Argan in the Assa Hills as the western column advanced on Zeila and the eastern column struck east for Odweina, to deceive the defenders and exploit opportunities. Early on 4 August the central column advanced towards Hargeisa, observed by the SCC which skirmished with the column to impose delays.[25] In the afternoon, three SM 81s attacked Berbera and a 94 Squadron Gladiator attacked one from the 15° Squadriglia which reached Jijiga with one dead crewman and two wounded. On 4 August, two SM 79 bombers of 44° Gruppo arrived at Dire Dawa and two of the 94 Squadron Gloster Gladiators at Berbera transferred to Laferug further south closer to Tug Argan, both strips having only small-arms for defence. There were two 3-inch anti-aircraft guns at Berbera but these were reserved for the defence of the port. During the night 216 Squadron at Aden sent a Bristol Bombay to bomb Dire Dawa but a lightning storm forced the crew to divert to Zula.[26]

 
General Guglielmo Nasi

On 5 August as the Italian invasion force occupied Hargeisa, covered by Ro 37bis reconnaissance aircraft of 110° Squadriglia and attacks by SM 79s on Zeila, Berbera and Aden, two more SM 79s arriving from Addis Ababa and three Ca 133s from Doghabur to participate. Flights of three Blenheims of 8 Squadron made three attacks on Italian motor columns west of Hargeisa, one Blenheim being shot down by a CR 32 of 410° Squadriglia.[26] The eastern column, comprising mainly Bande, reached Odweina on 6 August and then headed north-west toward Adadle, a village on the Tug Argan, instead of towards Burao (tug, Somali for a dry sandy riverbed). The SCC and small patrols of Illalo, a small force of local levies normally employed on police duties, conducted a delaying action as the other British and Commonwealth forces retreated towards Tug Argan.[27] At 01:00 twelve light tanks advanced in line; three were hit and knocked out by Boys anti-tank rifle fire from the SCC and the company of the NRR defending the hill station.[28] On 6 August Blenheims of 8 and 39 squadrons continued to fly reconnaissance sorties and to attack the Italian columns. An 8 Squadron Blenheim was damaged by twelve attacks by CR 42s; the Italian pilots claimed one bomber shot down and a probable. With Hargeisa captured, two CR 32s and two CR 42s arrived from Dire Dawa on 7 August and began patrols; to the south, Ca 133s flew sorties over the front.[29]

 
The Burao countryside in 2006

The Italians paused at Hargeisa for two days to reorganise and then resumed the advance through the Karim Pass toward the Tug Argan, in the Assa Hills. Aosta urged haste but Nasi refused to rush because the road was deteriorating under the heavy traffic and rain. The Italian advance resumed on 8 August and for two days closed up to the British defences as the Italians made preparations to attack. The defenders reported the presence of Italian medium tanks and the captain of “HMAS”号Hobart donated the ship's QF 3-pounder Hotchkiss saluting gun, a three-man crew and 30 rounds of ammunition.[27][c] The two Gladiators at Berbera were caught on the ground at 06:00 by three Italian fighters; one Gladiator was burnt out and the other damaged; when the news reached Laferug the other two Gladiators were ordered back to Aden. Blenheim IVFs of 203 Squadron from Aden patrolled Berbera as a substitute but two SM 79s bombed the port. Around noon a Blenheim attacked three more SM 79s as they bombed Berbera, damaged one and killed a member of the crew. Three SM 81s had attacked the Godojere Pass in the morning and three Ca 133s bombed the Kerim Pass. The Ro 37bis continued to fly reconnaissance sorties and the fighter patrols were maintained; a CR 32 and a CR 42 were damaged in landing accidents at Hargeisa.[29]

In the north, the Bertoldi column captured Zeila, about 150 mi（240 km） north-west of Berbera, cutting communications with French Somaliland and then began a slow advance south-east along the coast road, under intermittent air attack from Aden and bombardment from the sea, pushing back the SCC rearguards as far as the village of Bulhar by 17 August.[31][20][d] Just before Wavell left Cairo to visit London for talks, reports of the size of the invasion force led him to order most of a field artillery regiment and two anti-tank guns of the 4th Indian Infantry Division to be sent from Egypt to Somaliland by special convoy. The Indian Army was asked to organise the first echelon of the 5th Indian Infantry Division for an infantry battalion, a field battery and a field company to be disembarked at Berbera. Anti-aircraft guns at Port Said were ordered to the colony but this decision was quietly countermanded two days later. Major-General Reade Godwin-Austen was appointed to command the enlarged force, with orders to defend the Tug Argan, defeat the Italian invasion and plan secretly to evacuate the defenders if it became necessary. Godwin-Austen reached Berbera on 11 July and took over command that evening; the reinforcements were too late and were diverted to Sudan.[33][34]

图格阿拉甘阵地

 
The Tug Argan Gap in 1954

From 7 to 8 August, the defenders had received reinforcements of the 1/2nd Punjab Regiment and the 2nd Battalion Black Watch; by 10 August, de Simone had closed up on the British positions behind the Tug Argan and prepared the Italian attack. The road from Hargeisa turns north through the Kerim Pass to Tug Argan and then east between the Assa hills to the south, hills and dry riverbeds (tugs) to the north. The pass is a flat stone expanse with occasional thorn bushes, tugs and a few rocky hills about 2,000至2,500 yd（1,800至2,300米） apart, named Black, Knobbly, Mill and Observation hills by the defenders, with Castle Hill 2 mi（3.2 km） east of Mill Hill.[16]

The positions had been fortified with machine-gun posts and a modest amount of barbed wire. The defences were impossible to by-pass and had good observation but with so little artillery, the advantage was dubious. The defenders were too few in number to cover the gap and the hills were far enough apart for an attacker to pass between them; only Castle Hill was behind the other fortified hill tops, providing little scope for defence in depth. There were several camel tracks through the Mirgo Pass 8 mi（13 km） from Black Hill and the Jerato Pass in the Assa Hills, which gave further opportunities for the Italians to exploit their numerical superiority.[35] During the morning of 9 August, three Italian fighters strafed the airfield at Berbera but found only a damaged Blenheim. The aircraft were fired on by personnel at the base and the Australian cruiser Hobart in the harbour joined in with its machine-guns. The Gladiator damaged the day before was dismantled and taken to Aden. On 10 August the Italian northern column reached Zeila despite naval bombardments and bombing from aircraft flying from Aden; the column was eventually stopped by its vehicle tyres being damaged by the rough ground.[36]

图格阿拉甘战役

主条目：图格阿拉甘战役（英语：Battle of Tug Argan）
 
Modern geographic map of Somaliland showing the coastal plain and hilly interior

The Australians from Hobart, with their Hotchkiss gun, arrived at dawn on 10 August but the gun had to be dismantled to load, which reduced its rate of fire to once every five minutes, while its 32 HE rounds and 32 solid shot lasted.[33] The battle for Tug Argan began and another two CR 32 and a CR 42 were sent from Dire Dawa to Hargeisa along with a Ca 133 of 53° Squadriglia; five SM 79s from Addis Ababa were transferred to Dire Dawa. Early in the morning 8 Squadron sent three Blenheims to dive bomb Italian troops at Tug Argan, one being damaged by a CR 42. In the afternoon another three Blenheims bombed the village of Dubato; two of the Blenheims collided on the return journey and crashed in flames. On 11 August a morning attack was made by Six Ca 133s and three SM 81s on the Godojere Pass, a SM 81 being shot down by ground fire. Three CR 42s strafed Laferug and a SM 79 bombed the airstrip afterwards. A Blenheim was claimed shot down by Italian troops but no loss appeared in British records.[36]

On 11 August, the Italians bombarded then attacked the west end of the Assa Hills at Punjab Ridge with a brigade of infantry, pushed back the defending company of the 3rd Battalion, 15th Punjab Regiment, then repulsed a counter-attack; attacks on Mill and Knobbly hills failed.[37] At dawn a couple of Blenheims from 11 and 39 squadrons from Aden bombed Italian artillery around Darboruk against anti-aircraft fire then the 11 Squadron Blenheim was bounced by a CR 42 and damaged while the crew were trying to drop a message for British troops. The 39 Squadron machine was also attacked and made an emergency landing at Berbera. About two hours later three 39 Squadron Blenheims arrived to repeat the attack and the formation leader was attacked by a 410° Squadriglia CR 32. The pilot of the third Blenheim saw the attack, jettisoned bombs and attacked the Italian fighter, which made a head-on attack, wounding the Blenheim pilot and killed the observer. The pilot managed to reach Berbera and crash-land; the Italian pilot was also wounded. During the attack, a Blenheim IVF of 203 Squadron patrolled Berbera and tried to intercept three SM 79s but broke off the pursuit when a hit in the cockpit, wounded the pilot and navigator. Italian aircraft provided ground support all day, six Ca 133s bombing Mandera and Laferug.[38]

On 12 August, all of the British positions were attacked simultaneously and by the evening Mill Hill, the least fortified position, had been captured after a determined resistance by troops of the Northern Rhodesian Regiment. Two of the East African Light Battery howitzers were lost and the Italians had established themselves in the Assa Hills, dominating the southern side of the gap. On 13 August, the defenders of Knobbly Hill defeated another attack but the Italians infiltrated down Mirgo Pass past the defended localities and ambushed a convoy carrying water and ammunition, which managed to fight its way through to Castle Hill.[37] On 13 August the aircraft of CTSAO concentrated on the area to the east of Adadleh; the Jerato Pass was bombed by Ca 233s and the crashed Blenheims at Berbera were strafed twice by CR 32s, one on the second attack being hit by small-arms fire and landing inside British-held territory. Another three SM 81s were transferred from Shashamane (south of Addis Ababa) to Dire Dawa. Italian outflanking moves at Tug Argan led the British to begin a withdrawal to Berbera. Eleven 223 Squadron Wellesleys were sent to reinforce the RAF at Aden.[39]

On 14 August, Castle Hill and Observation Hill were bombed and bombarded by artillery but an attack on Observation Hill failed. Mussolini signalled to Aosta,

Pour all available reserves into Somaliland to stimulate the operation. Order the entire Imperial air force to co-operate.

——Mussolini[37]

Italian troops of the western column reported air attacks at Zeila and on a column advancing down the coast road towards Berbera, one bomber being claimed shot down but no losses appearing in RAF records. SM 79s attacked shipping off Bulhar, three SM 81s and three Ca 133s bombed a fort near the Godojere Pass and retreating troops on the road to Berbera, nearby. Three CR 32s attacked road transport at Laferug, Mandera and tracks to Berbera.[39]

At Tug Argan a counter-attack towards Mirgo Pass by two companies of the 2nd KAR, had some success before it was forced back by Italian attacks. The Italians were close to positions from which they could cut off the defenders from their sole line of supply. The Italian advantage in artillery meant that the defended localities could be picked off piecemeal. After four days, the defenders were tiring and there was no better position to retreat to; an attempt to hold Berbara alone would be pointless. Godwin-Austen informed Henry Wilson, the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOC-in-C) British Troops in Egypt of the situation, concluding that further resistance at Tug Argan would be futile and likely to result in the loss of the force. Wavell had been called to London and arrived on 7 August but Wilson kept him informed of events, signalling his decision to order the evacuation of the colony to London with a few minutes. Wavell told Churchill who said that it could not be helped, then Wavell left to return to Cairo.[40] Withdrawal would result in an estimated 70 percent of the force being saved but if necessary the defenders would fight on. When it was clear that the attack towards Mirgo Pass had failed, sufficient troops were left, either to retrieve the situation or cover a withdrawal. Early on 15 August, Godwin-Austen signalled his conclusions to Wilson, who ordered Godwin-Austen to withdraw from the colony.[41] Godwin-Austin planned a slow retirement to Barkasan, about 33 mi（53 km） from Berbera, then to Nasiyeh, 17 mi（27 km） from the port. Over three nights, civilians then troops would be embarked, the time taken being determined by the monsoon, which usually made it difficult to reach ships by boat at night and before midday.[42]

撤至柏培拉

 
Kenyan troops from the 7th Battalion, King's African Rifles parading in Mogadishu, 1941

On 15 August, CTSAO bombers continued to fly sorties in support of the army. Three Ca 133s bombed around Laferug and three SM 79s bombed troops around Berbera. Six Blenheim I bombers flew from Iraq to reinforce the RAF at Aden and on passing Kamaran Island an SM 81 flew underneath the formation. The Blenheims dived on the bomber and three achieved firing positions, shooting it down. On landing the crews handed over their aircraft and returned to Iraq in Bombay transports the next day.[39] After a long bombardment, the Italians overran Observation Hill and during the night the NRR retreated from Black, Knobbly and Castle hills. The Black Watch, two companies of the 2nd KAR and elements of 1/2nd Punjab Regiment formed a rearguard at Barkasan on the Berbera road, about 10 mi（16 km） behind Tug Argan and other troops moved back to Nasiyeh.[42]

The CTSAO concentrated its operations against the port and in a dawn attack two SM 81 bombers attacked ships in the harbour and were damaged by anti-aircraft fire. Two SM 79s bombed at noon and one was also damaged by anti-aircraft fire. The third Italian raid, by three SM 79s met two Martin Marylands from the Free French flight in 8 Squadron, which were patrolling Berbera and one Maryland pilot claimed a SM 79 shot down; it was not confirmed but crashed in flames soon after.[43][e] The CTSAO at Dire Dawa was reinforced by two SM 79s of 44° Gruppo and three CR 32s from 411° Squadriglia at Addis Ababa and three SM 81s from Shashamanna.[43]

The retirement was followed up cautiously by the Italians, who attacked the defenders at Barkasan on 17 August. The Black Watch made several counter-attacks and repulsed the Italian forces but it was only a matter of time before the defences were outflanked. The evacuation at Berbera went more smoothly than expected and Godwin-Austen was able to withdraw the rearguard at Nasiyeh and once night fell, bring back the rearguard from Barkasan.[42] Five Blenheims bombed the captured landing ground at Hargeisa and five Ca 133s with two CR 32 fighter escorts bombed the British residency at Sheikh. A 39 Squadron Blenheim on a reconnaissance sortie, was hit by ground fire and came down in the sea, the crew being rescued by the cruiser “Ceres”号D59 (6). As the Italian invasion neared completion, three SM 81s of the 4° Gruppo went back to Shashamanna, two of the SM 79s of 44° Gruppo went back to Addis Ababa and three more SM 79s of 10° Squadriglia 28° Gruppo arrived from Gura in Eritrea after the 10° Squadriglia had exchanged it SM 81s from reinforcements of SM 79s being flown from Libya. In Aden 39 Squadron gave up two Blenheims to 11 Squadron so that each had five operational bombers.[44]

撤离

The Royal Navy had built an all-tide jetty and had commenced evacuating civilian and administrative officials; on 16 August, the British started to embark troops.[45] Attacks by the Regia Aeronautica on the British vessels in the Gulf of Aden and Berbera had begun on 8 August to little effect; “HMAS”号Hobart was slightly damaged in two attacks and the auxiliary vessel Chakdina suffered splinter damage.[46] On 17 August, the Italian western column at Bulhar, about 40 mi（64 km） west of Berbera, was engaged by the light cruiser Ceres and halted by gunfire.[19] After dark, the rearguard was withdrawn to Berbera with minimal losses and loading was complete by the early hours of 18 August.[47] At 05:35 on 18 August three 11 Squadron Blenheims bombed Italian vehicles near Laferug and were intercepted by two CR 32s of 410° Squadriglia, which shot down a Blenheim in flames. the crew parachuted but two of the men died in hospital of burns. Soon after the Blenheims took off, five Wellesleys from 223 Squadron flew from Perim Island and bombed Addis Ababa airfield in bad weather. A CR 42 managed to damage four of the Wellesleys whose crews claimed two hangars destroyed, two damaged, four SM 79s destroyed, two damaged and Aosta's runabout destroyed. Italian records show a SM 79, a S 75 and three Ca 133s destroyed, one SM 79 and a SM 81 damaged. Two attacks on Berbera were made by SM 79s during the morning and three SM 79s escorted by two CR 42s attacked soon after noon, the fighters driving a Blenheim F away. Italian troops overcame the second British defensive position before Berbera.[48]

Before sailing for Aden early on 19 August, Hobart, with the force headquarters aboard, stayed behind to collect stragglers and complete the destruction of buildings, vehicles, fuel and stores. The tug Queen was the only British ship lost in the operation, scuttled by her crew on 18 August.[47][49] Italian forces recovered the hull and renamed her Stella d' Italia. The armed tug became the only Italian naval ship south of Bab El Mandeb.[50] The Royal Navy embarked 7,140 people, 5,690 of them being front-line troops, 1,266 civilians and 184 sick. Most of the Somalis of the SCC were sent home to wait for the British to return, earlier plans for them to fight a guerrilla war being scrapped. SCC members who were embarked, became an armoured car unit under the same title.[51] There was little Italian interference with the evacuation, perhaps because on 15 August Aosta had ordered Nasi to allow the British to evacuate without too much fighting, in the hope of a peace agreement being mediated through the Vatican.[52] The last CTSAO raid was flown against Berbera by three SM 79s; soon afterwards, British aircraft from Aden attacked Italian troops as they occupied the town that evening. Much of Berbera was on fire and the wreckage of four British aircraft were found on the airfield.[48] Mussolini annexed the colony to the AOI, as part of the Italian Empire.[53]

Aftermath

Analysis

 
Impero italiano (red); the maximum extent of the Italian Empire shown in pink

The Italians had shown the ability to coordinate columns separated by many miles of desert; the forces under British command had kept their discipline during the retreat and preserved most of their men. British Somaliland was annexed to Italian East Africa and Mussolini boasted that Italy had conquered a territory the size of England: British Somaliland, the border outposts of Karora, Gallabat, Kurmak and Kassala in Sudan, Moyale and Buna in Kenya. News of the evacuation came as a shock to British public opinion but Wavell backed Godwin-Austen, saying that he had judged the situation correctly.[53][54] The British had to immobilise and abandon 350 vehicles and most of their stores because of the need to ferry everything to the ships offshore.[55]

From 5 to 19 August the RAF at Aden flew 184 sorties and dropped 60 long ton（61 t） of bombs. From 16 to 19 August, the RAF flew 12 reconnaissance sorties, 19 bomber-reconnaissance sorties, 72 bomber sorties against Italian troops and transport and 36 fighter sorties over Berbera of the total. The British learned that inadequately defended airstrips could quickly be made untenable, leaving bombers flying from Aden unprotected against air attack. Despite the land campaign, a convoy sailed the Red Sea early in August and another convoy began the voyage on 19 August escorted by 14 Squadron Wellesleys as the Blenheim IVFs were busy over Berbera. After the British evacuation, both sides dispersed aircraft sent to reinforce the local units, the CTSAO being disbanded on 26 August.[48]

Winston Churchill criticised Wavell for the loss of British Somaliland; because of the few casualties, Churchill thought that the colony had not been vigorously defended and proposed a board of inquiry. Wavell refused to co-operate and said that Godwin-Austen and Wilson had conducted a textbook withdrawal in the face of superior numbers. Wavell sent a telegram to Churchill which included the passage

...a big butcher’s bill was not necessarily evidence of good tactics.

——Wavell[56]

Churchill was said by General John Dill, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), to have been moved to "greater anger than he had ever seen him in before"; the incident was the beginning of the end for Wavell who was superseded by Claude Auchinleck in July 1941.[56]

In 2016, Andrew Stewart wrote that given the exiguous nature of the British force in the colony, the defenders had done well to resist for as long as they had. The defence of British Somaliland took place during the Battle of Britain and the defeat could not be portrayed in heroic terms. Churchill was wrong to condemn Wavell and his subordinates but as Minister of Defence as well as Prime Minister, he could dictate consequences to defeated generals. Adolf Hitler called the evacuation of the colony a "hard blow" but

...all the British had lost was the privilege of maintaining an expensive garrison in their least valuable colony.

——Cowie War for Britain (1941)[57]

The capture of the colony was the greatest success of the Italians in the East African campaign but they had not been able to exploit the opportunities that they had created. Delays caused by the terrain, weather and the cancellation of a coup de main by Italian 300 infantry on the port had enabled the British to get away, despite the improvised nature of the embarkation.[58]

Casualties

In 1954, Ian Playfair, the British official historian, wrote that the British suffered 260 casualties and estimated Italian casualties at 2,052 men. Seven British aircraft were shot down and ten were badly damaged in the fourteen days' fighting.[59] In 1988, Alberto Rovighi, the Italian official historian, wrote that the Italians suffered 465 men killed, 1,530 wounded and 34 missing, a total of 2,029 men, of whom 161 were Italian and 1,868 were in local Eritrean and Somali Ascari units of the Regio Corpo di Truppe Coloniali. Somali irregulars supporting the British suffered about another 2,000 casualties during the invasion and occupation; about 1,000 Somali irregulars became casualties fighting on the Italian side.[60] In 1993, Harold Raugh wrote that 38 of the British casualties had been killed and 222 wounded.[61] In a 1996 publication, Christopher Shores gave the same figures for Italian casualties as Maravigna and wrote that the RAF lost seven aircraft and had ten damaged.[48] In 2007, Andrea Molinari recorded 1,995 Italian casualties and four aircraft destroyed.[62]

Subsequent operations

主条目：Operation Appearance

On 16 March 1941, the British executed Operation Appearance from Aden; the two Sikh battalions of the Indian Army that had been part of the defence force in August 1940 and a Somali commando detachment landed on either side of Berbera from transports escorted by “Glasgow”号C21 (6), Caledon, Kandahar and Kingston.[63] The invasion by the Sikhs was the first successful Allied landing on an occupied beach of the war; few men of the Italian 70th Colonial Brigade offered resistance. Repairs began on the port and supplies for the 11th African Division were passing through within a week, reducing the road transport distance by 500 mi（800 km）. The British re-captured the whole of British Somaliland and on 8 April, Chater was appointed Military Governor.[64]

参见

Notes

  1. ^ 1940年8月18日—1941年4月8日
  2. ^ 7成5是国王非洲步枪营（英语：King's African Rifles）及索马里非正规军
  3. ^ PO H. Jones, AB Hugh Sweeney and AB W. J. Hurren took the 3-pounder, which had been mounted on an improvised carriage, to reinforce the defenders at Tug Argan. The sailors went missing and were feared dead but became the first Australian prisoners of war until they were liberated at Adi Ugri (now Mendefera) in Eritrea on 1 April 1941.[30]
  4. ^ “Kimberley”号F50 (6), Aukland, “Carlisle”号D67 (2), “Ceres”号D59 (2) and “HMAS”号Hobart participated in shore bombardments. Hobart was attacked by three Italian fighters and sent its Walrus to attack an Italian headquarters at Zeila. The Walrus crew strafed Italian vehicles and dropped two 112磅（51千克） bombs.[32]
  5. ^ Not carrying wireless, the crew misunderstood hand signals from the other crews who could see smoke coming out of the aircraft. The SM 79 crew waved back but then the aircraft exploded and hit the ground near Sheikh, south of Berbera.[43]

Citations

  1. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第2页.
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 Playfair et al. 1959，第38–40页.
  3. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第6–7, 69页.
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Playfair et al. 1959，第19, 93页.
  5. ^ Dear & Foot 2005，第245, 247页.
  6. ^ Omar 2001，第402页.
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 Stewart 2016，第62页.
  8. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第123–125, 128页.
  9. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第128, 167–168页.
  10. ^ Stewart 2016，第63–64页.
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Raugh 1993，第75–76页.
  12. ^ Stewart 2016，第65页.
  13. ^ Stewart 2016，第67页.
  14. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第167–168页.
  15. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第172–173页.
  16. ^ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Playfair et al. 1959，第173页.
  17. ^ Shores 1996，第42–54页.
  18. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第168, 174页.
  19. ^ 19.0 19.1 Mackenzie 1951，第23页.
  20. ^ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 Playfair et al. 1959，第174页.
  21. ^ 21.0 21.1 Stewart 2016，第75页.
  22. ^ Shores 1996，第45页.
  23. ^ Shores 1996，第41页.
  24. ^ Shores 1996，第41–43页.
  25. ^ Stewart 2016，第75–77页; Playfair et al. 1959，第174页.
  26. ^ 26.0 26.1 Shores 1996，第43–45页.
  27. ^ 27.0 27.1 Playfair et al. 1959，第173–175页.
  28. ^ Stewart 2016，第76–77页.
  29. ^ 29.0 29.1 Shores 1996，第46–47页.
  30. ^ Gill 1957，第206页.
  31. ^ Stewart 2016，第77页.
  32. ^ Stewart 2016，第79页.
  33. ^ 33.0 33.1 Stewart 2016，第81页.
  34. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第175页.
  35. ^ Mackenzie 1951，第22页; Playfair et al. 1959，第175–176页.
  36. ^ 36.0 36.1 Shores 1996，第48页.
  37. ^ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Playfair et al. 1959，第176页.
  38. ^ Shores 1996，第49–51页.
  39. ^ 39.0 39.1 39.2 Shores 1996，第51–52页.
  40. ^ Raugh 1993，第76–82页.
  41. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第176–177页.
  42. ^ 42.0 42.1 42.2 Playfair et al. 1959，第177页.
  43. ^ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Shores 1996，第53页.
  44. ^ Shores 1996，第53–54页.
  45. ^ TAC 1942，第19页.
  46. ^ Collins 1964，第39–40页.
  47. ^ 47.0 47.1 Gill 1957，第205–206页.
  48. ^ 48.0 48.1 48.2 48.3 Shores 1996，第54页.
  49. ^ Semaphore 2010.
  50. ^ Red Sea Naval War. Warfare History Network. 2016-07-05 [2021-06-29]. 
  51. ^ Stewart 2016，第87, 263页.
  52. ^ Rovighi 1988，第138页.
  53. ^ 53.0 53.1 Mockler 1984，第245–249页.
  54. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第179页.
  55. ^ Stewart 2016，第87页.
  56. ^ 56.0 56.1 Raugh 1993，第82–83页.
  57. ^ Stewart 2016，第93页.
  58. ^ Stewart 2016，第93–94页.
  59. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第178–179页.
  60. ^ Maravigna 1949，第453页; Rovighi 1988，第188页.
  61. ^ Raugh 1993，第82页.
  62. ^ Molinari 2007，第117页.
  63. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第417页; Rohwer & Hümmelchen 1992，第54页.
  64. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第418页.

References

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  • Dear, I. C. B.; Foot, M. R. D. (编). Oxford Companion to World War II. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 [1995]. ISBN 978-0-19-280670-3. 
  • Gill, G. Hermon. Chapter 5, R. A. N. Ships Overseas June–December 1940. Royal Australian Navy, 1939–1942. Australia in the War of 1939–1945, Series 2 I online. Canberra, ACT: Australian War Memorial. 1957: 140–246 [20 February 2016]. OCLC 848228. 
  • Mackenzie, Compton. Eastern Epic: September 1939 – March 1943 Defence I. London: Chatto & Windus. 1951. OCLC 59637091. 
  • Maravigna, General Pietro. Come abbiamo perduto la guerra in Africa. Le nostre prime colonie in Africa. Il conflitto mondiale e le operazioni in Africa Orientale e in Libia [How We Lost the War in Africa: Our First Colonies in Africa, the World Conflict and Operations in East Africa and Libya]. Roma: Tosi. 1949. OCLC 643646990 （意大利语）. 
  • Mockler, Anthony. Haile Selassie's War: The Italian−Ethiopian Campaign, 1935–1941. New York: Random House. 1984. ISBN 978-0-394-54222-5. 
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  • Omar, Mohamed. The Scramble in the Horn of Africa: History of Somalia, 1827–1977. Mogadishu: Somali Publications. 2001. ISBN 978-1-874209-63-8. 
  • Playfair, I. S. O.; Stitt, G. M. S.; Molony, C. J. C.; Toomer, S. E. Butler, J. R. M. , 编. The Mediterranean and Middle East: The Early Successes Against Italy (to May 1941). History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series I 3rd. HMSO. 1959 [1954] [3 September 2015]. OCLC 494123451. 
  • Raugh, H. E. Wavell in the Middle East, 1939–1941: A Study in Generalship. London: Brassey's UK. 1993. ISBN 978-0-08-040983-2. 
  • Rohwer, Jürgen; Hümmelchen, Gerhard. Chronik des Seekrieges 1939–1945: Hrsg. vom Arbeitskreis für Wehrforschung und von der Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte [Chronology of the War at Sea, 1939–1945: From the Working Group for Military Research and from the Library for Contemporary History]. G. Stalling 2nd trans. Oldenburg: Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MD. 1992 [1968]. ISBN 978-1-55750-105-9 （德语）. 
  • Rovighi, Alberto. Le Operazioni in Africa Orientale: (giugno 1940 – novembre 1941) [Operations in East Africa: (June 1940 – November 1941)]. Roma: Stato Maggiore Esercito, Ufficio storico. 1988 [1952]. OCLC 848471066 （意大利语）. 
  • Shores, Christopher. Dust Clouds in the Middle East: The Air War for East Africa, Iran, Syria, Iran and Madagascar, 1940–42. London: Grub Street. 1996. ISBN 978-1-898697-37-4. 
  • Stewart, A. The First Victory: The Second World War and the East Africa Campaign 1st. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 2016. ISBN 978-0-300-20855-9. 
  • The Abyssinian Campaigns: The Official Story of the Conquest of Italian East Africa. Army at War. London: Issued for the War Office by the Ministry of Information (HMSO). 1942. OCLC 894319. 

延伸阅读

  • Abdisalam, Mohamed Issa-Salwe. The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy. London: Haan Associates. 1996. ISBN 978-1-87420-991-1. 
  • Antonicelli, Franco. Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915–1945: dall'antifascismo alla Resistenza: lezioni con testimonianze [Thirty Years of Italian History 1915–1945: From Antifascism to Resistance: Lessons with Testimonials]. Saggi. Torino: Einaudi. 1961. OCLC 828603112 （意大利语）.  |issue=被忽略 (帮助)
  • Ball, S. The Bitter Sea: The Struggle for Mastery in the Mediterranean 1935–1949 1st. London: HarperPress. 2009. ISBN 978-0-00-720304-8. 
  • Del Boca, Angelo. Italiani in Africa Orientale: La caduta dell'Impero [The Italians in East Africa, the fall of the Empire]. Roma-Bari: Laterza. 1986. ISBN 978-88-420-2810-9 （意大利语）. 
  • Ferrara, Orazio. La battaglia di Tug Argan Pass (La conquista del Somaliland britannico) [The Battle of Tug Argan Pass (The Conquest of British Somaliland)]. Eserciti Nella Storia (Anno VI) (Parma: Delta). 2005, (32). ISSN 1591-3031 （意大利语）. 
  • Jackson, Ashley. The British Empire and the Second World War. London: Hambledon Continuum. 2006. ISBN 978-1-85285-517-8. 
  • Mockler, A. Haile Selassie's War 2nd. pbk. Grafton Books [Collins], London. London: Oxford University Press. 1987 [1984]. ISBN 0-586-07204-7. 
  • Moyse-Bartlett, H. The King's African Rifles: A Study in the Military History of East and Central Africa, 1890–1945 II 2nd pbk. repr. Naval & Military Press, Uckfield. Aldershot: Gale & Polden. 2002 [1956]. OCLC 604161828. 
  • Newton, R. D. The RAF and Tribal Control: Airpower and Irregular Warfare between the World Wars. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 2019. ISBN 978-0-70-062871-1. 
  • Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901–04 I online. London: Harrison and Sons for HMSO War Office, General Staff. 1907 [6 September 2017]. OCLC 903224942. 
  • Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901–04 II online. London: Harrison and Sons for HMSO War Office, General Staff. 1907 [6 September 2017]. OCLC 915556896. 
  • Rovighi, Alberto. Le Operazioni in Africa Orientale: (giugno 1940 – novembre 1941) Narrazione Parte Prima [Operations in East Africa (June 1940 – November 1941) Narration Part One] I 2nd. Roma: Stato Maggiore Esercito, Ufficio storico. 1995 [1952]. OCLC 956084252 （意大利语）. 
  • Sobski, Marek. East Africa 1940–1941 (land campaign): The Italian Army Defends the Empire in the Horn of Africa. Mussolini's War I. 由Basarabowicz, Tomasz翻译. Zielona Gora. 2020. ISBN 979-8-57-786912-0. 
  • Wavell, A. Operations in the Somaliland Protectorate, 1939–1940 (Appendix A – G. M. R. Reid and A. R. Godwin-Austen). London Gazette (37594) (London). 4 June 1946: 2719–2727. OCLC 265544298. 

外部链接

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