印度-太平洋語系

印度-太平洋語系是由約瑟·哈羅德·格林伯格於1971年提出的總語系,目前認為此說謬誤。其將新幾內亞美拉尼西亞巴布亞諸語言安達曼語系(或至少大安達曼語系)、塔斯馬尼亞諸語言結合到一起。格林伯格找到的同源詞後來成了範圍較小的跨新幾內亞語系證據。一般被認為是孤立語言庫孫達語(可能還包括其他未分類語言)也被包括進來。[1]:5692–56951971年的原始假設中並未包含「澳大利亞原住民語言」。

印度-太平洋語系
Indo-Pacific
謬誤
地理分佈大洋洲東南亞南亞澳洲
譜系學分類假設的語系
分支
Glottolog

假設

印度-太平洋語系假說將新幾內亞的非南島語言與新幾內亞東邊或西邊的特定語言結合起來,首先由格林伯格於1971年作出。支持者Merritt Ruhlen認為印度-太平洋語系是一個內部多樣性極大而十分古老的語系,甚至遠比反映6000年前的民族遷徙的南島語系古老。他注意到,新幾內亞至少4萬年前就已有現代人類居住,有一定冗餘的估計還要再加1到1.5萬年。[2]路易吉·路卡·卡瓦利-斯福扎則認為印度-太平洋語系是非常多相的語系,內含700種語言,可能老於4萬年。[3]

接受程度

格林伯格的假說基於對詞彙相似性的大致估計和形態相似性,尚未經過標準的比較法檢驗,也沒有對祖語的構擬。塔斯馬尼亞語言已經滅絕了,其證據如此稀少以至於許多歷史語言學家都認為它們不可分類。羅傑·布倫奇以該理由反駁印度-太平洋語系假說,注意到它「標榜純粹的語言學實踐...它方便地將一大片地區所有捲毛人群的非南島語言全放在一起。」他寫道,如果不談對巴布亞諸語言的更深入研究和史前史研究,印度-太平洋語系也是不可接受的,它「只存在於相信者的眼中」。[4]無我(2001)[5]如此回覆:

種族觀念仍被不加批判地用在語言分類上。晚至1971年,約瑟夫·格林伯格還試圖重彈「自孟加拉灣西邊的安達曼群島直到塔斯馬尼亞的大部分非南島語言都屬於一個單一的發生學語系」的老調。這個假說跟Finck1909年的「Sprachen der ozeanischen Neger」沒什麼不同,這個假說已經用了「印度-太平洋」的名字,其最終根植於體質人類學的「泛尼格利陀理論」。(參Skeat&Blagden 1906: 25–28)。 格林伯格為證實印度-太平洋語系舉出的語言證據沒有說服力,相似的詞彙和表面的類型學相似不能說明語言間存在親緣關係,況且這些還是基於使用者的身體素質。

自格林伯格的工作以來,新幾內亞語言主要由斯蒂芬·沃姆研究。沃姆提出的跨新幾內亞語系包含格林伯格印度-太平洋語系假說70%的語言,[2]不過其內部結構完全不同。沃姆還認為大安達曼語系、西巴布亞語系(不屬於跨新幾內亞)和帝汶的特定語言間的詞彙相似性「相當地引人注目,近乎同形[...]例子也不算少」,但認為是底層的影響,而不是語言間直接的聯繫。[6]

Pawley (2008)發現除塔斯馬尼亞和安達曼語以外的所有印度-太平洋分支都包含跨新幾內亞語系的語言,這可以解釋比格林伯格提供的更堅實的同源詞。但是因為這些跨新幾內亞語言混合了其他語系的語言,連接起各個分支的同源詞並不支持格林伯格「所有巴布亞語言都有親緣關係」的論斷。[7]

詞彙比較

下表比較了不同「印度-太平洋語系」語言和祖語的基礎詞彙.

詞義 庫孫達語[8] 尼哈利語[9] 原始
翁甘語[10]:154-198
大安達曼語[11] 克那博依語[12] 恩加諾語[13] 原始跨新幾內亞語[14] 原始帕馬-恩永甘語[15] 原始
昆威庫語[16]
原始
紐爾紐爾語[17]
ipi pe(ː)ñ *-otab ɛr-co tahal ɛyu, iur *kV(mb,p)utu; *mVtVna *koc; *-pam *-alma; *marru
頭髮 gi kuguso *-ode ot-bec sûyut pururu, yur *(nd,s)umu(n,t)[V]; *iti *ngar
iŋ / inəŋ jikit *-ecebo < *eca-ipo er-ulu laŋ bak *(ŋg,k)iti [maŋgV]; *ŋg(a,u)mu; *nVpV *kuru *koq; *-nganycurla; *-Tum *-miny
iyu cigam *-ikwag er-buo cʰəliòh karih *kand(i,e)k[V] *-kanam *-lababa
inu / inəu coːn *-iɲjan-ipo er-kɔʈʰo lîaŋ pan *mundu *ngurru *ce *-mal(ul)
uhu, u.u menge *-akwed er-pʰile, ɸile cʰəráh ʔekaʔ, kaaʔ *titi *rirra, *lirra *yama/errk ; *-retmV *jarringk
iŋdzũ, idziŋ / idzəŋ *-adalaŋ ɑ-tɑt ɟelil di *mbilaŋ; *me(l,n)e *calañ *thelng; *-cen *-yangala
ata, atta kaggo *-alaŋ er-pʰoŋ ɟəhòp kaʔaʔ, kaʔ *maŋgat[a] *caː *-ngal/rrk; *-thala *-lirr
awi / awəi bakko *-ome er-ʈoŋ tʰã ɛaʔ, ʔeap *sikal, *sakil *mara *-kun *-marla
yen *uge u-mɔʈo ɟau ɛʔaa, ʔea *k(a,o)ond(a,o)C *cama; *cina *thenge *-mbala
乳房 ambu / ambo *-akak er-me-tɛi râpaŋ kok, èămah *amu *ngamun *pippi; *cikka *ngamarna
amba / əmba kaːw e-tʰomo hiədh p-Paman *miña *kany; *wang; *thangku *warli
ləpa, ləppa corṭo *-aceŋ e-tei cʰahâ kyakh, kiak *ke(nj,s)a *kurlpa; *kurrac *kunbulu; *kururr
gu.u, guhu paːkṭo *daŋ e-tɔe, o-ʈɔy gus ɛa, ʔea *kondaC *muku *-mo *kaanyji
nu, niu *eŋ, *əŋ (< *en) som kakh, kak *ambi *Nal *wamba
gidzi jumu, jyumu *-atiba liu ni *imbi *-ngey
agəi *wem(e) cɑo âmun bɛɛ̄, be *yila
nəsa caːn *napo ʈɑjeo râyap yay, ʔeai *kuya/u *ceny; *cipak
虱子 ki keːpe *kuhi kɔemo h'ɛyup, hĩũk *niman, *iman *kulu/i *mic; *Tort *wirnka
yiː / ihi *taŋ 'tree, log' ɛʈ-ʈole 'wood' sənɟéh *inda *thantaq; *Lany; *porloq
haq / haχ *bebe tec râpaŋ pruru *iti; *sasak *marla; *mancarr
gipan *okw ʈɔl, ʈɔlo kuntom èpfoejĕ, kafèfo *ngorro *bubu
taŋ joppo *iŋ ino par *ok[V]; *nok *nguku ~ *nguki *wak; *kolk- *wula
dza *tuke ɑʈ; luro haŋoi ɛəp, iɘb *k(a,o)nd(a,u)p; *inda; *kambu *jungku
yeŋgu / yiŋgu caːgo, caːrgo *uli meo buŋkal iɛa, ʔe *kamb(a,u)na, *[na]muna *cuntu; *kVrrV
dum *bela buɑ dowp *taːku 「地」
huki / hukki coːpo sɑre səmsam kanam
un, uŋ ḍãːy/ḍa(ː)y *icala ɲɔrtɔ ɛko *morlo *makirr
am ṭ/tyeː- *-ita ɲɑ; iji ɟáháp no *na- *mungka- *-rli
betto-be(ṭṭ) *peca-me em-pʰil kaʔa *kumV-

注釋

  1. ^ Paul Whitehouse; Timothy Usher; Merritt Ruhlen; William S.-Y. Wang. Kusunda: An Indo-Pacific language in Nepal. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2004-04-13, 101 (15). Bibcode:2004PNAS..101.5692W. PMC 397480 . PMID 15056764. doi:10.1073/pnas.0400233101 . 
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 Ruhlen, Merritt.The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. John Wiley & Sons, Inc: New York, 1994
  3. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca.Genes, Peoples, and Languages. University of California Press: Berkeley, 2001
  4. ^ Blench, Roger; Post, Mark, The Languages Of The Tasmanians And Their Relation To The Peopling Of Australia: Sensible and Wild Theories, 2008 [2021-12-22], (原始內容存檔於2021-12-22) 
  5. ^ Languages of the Himalayas, vol. 1, pp 139–141
  6. ^ Wurm, S.A. (1977).New Guinea Area Languages and Language Study, Volume 1: Papuan Languages and the New Guinea Linguistic Scene.頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra.
  7. ^ Andrew Pawley, 2008.assessment of Greenberg's Indo-Pacific hypothesis[失效連結](draft)
  8. ^ Watters, David E. 2006. Notes on Kusunda Grammar: A Language Isolate of Nepal.Himalayan Linguistics Archive3. (2006) 1-182.
  9. ^ Nagaraja, K.S. 2014.The Nihali language: grammar, texts and vocabulary. Manasagangotri, Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.ISBN 978-81-7343-144-9.
  10. ^ Blevins, Juliette. 2007. "A Long Lost Sister of Proto-Austronesian? Proto-Ongan, Mother of Jarawa and Onge of the Andaman Islands."Oceanic Linguistics, Volume 46, Number 1, June 2007.
  11. ^ Abbi, Anvita. 2011.Dictionary of the Great Andamanese language. Port Blair: Ratna Sagar.
  12. ^ Hajek, John. 1998. "An extinct unclassified language of the Malay Peninsula[失效連結]."Mon–Khmer Studies28: 137–49.
  13. ^ Greenhill, S.J., Blust. R, & Gray, R.D. (2008).Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database: From Bioinformatics to Lexomics[失效連結].Evolutionary Bioinformatics, 4:271-283.
  14. ^ Pawley, Andrew; Hammarström, Harald. The Trans New Guinea family. Palmer, Bill (編). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. 2018: 21–196. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7. 
  15. ^ Alpher, Barry. 2004. Pama-Nyungan: Phonological Reconstruction and Status as a Phylo-Genetic Group. In Claire Bowern and Harold Koch (eds.),Australian Languages: Classification and the Comparative Method, 93-126, 387-574. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
  16. ^ Harvey, Mark. 2003. An initial reconstruction of Proto Gunwinyguan phonology. In Evans, Nicholas (ed.),The non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region, 205-268. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
  17. ^ Stokes, Bronwyn and William McGregor. 2003. Classification and Subclassification of the Nyulnyulan Languages. In Nicholas Evans (ed.),The non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region, 29-74. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.

參考

  • Greenberg, Joseph H. 1971. "The Indo-Pacific hypothesis." InCurrent Trends in Linguistics, Vol. 8: Linguistics in Oceania, edited by Thomas A. Sebeok, 808-71. The Hague: Mouton.[1]頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)(Reprinted in Greenberg,Genetic Linguistics, 2005, 193–275.[2])
    treeavailable at the Linguist List MultiTree Project [no longer functional as of 2014]
  • Greenberg, Joseph H. 2005.Genetic Linguistics: Essays on Theory and Method, edited by William Croft. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • O'Grady, Dobrovolsky, Katamba. 1997.Contemporary Linguistics.
  • Usher, Timothy. "A comparison of Greenberg's and Wurm's classifications." In Greenberg,Genetic Linguistics, 2005, 261–269. (Systematic tabulation of the two sets of results.)
  • Wurm, Stephen A. 1982.The Papuan Languages of Oceania.Tübingen: Gunter Narr.

外部連結