用戶:NervaShuang/羅馬管區
在公元284年至公元602年羅馬帝國晚期,地方統治行政區被稱為羅馬管區或民事管區(拉丁語:dioecēsis,源於古希臘語:διοίκησις,意為「行政」、「管理」、「審判」的省份)。管區由行省組成,其最高行政長官為近衛總長(簡稱總長,最初為禁衛軍長官,後為近衛大區的最高行政長官,直接統治下轄的管區)派遣的主事(替代或代表)。到380年,管區由最初的12個增加到14個(意大利管區的主事駐地在羅馬,管轄亞平寧半島南部和周邊島嶼;北部由總長直轄,通常駐地在米蘭)。
民事管區不能與共和國和帝國初期從行省內分割出的早期司法轄區(judicial districts)混為一談。管區建立於第一次四帝共治時期(293-305年),通常認為是297年或一些最近研究表明的313/314年,但不會晚於《維羅納職官表》記載的準確時間:公元314年6月。[1]所以管區的創立時間仍有爭議。[2]在三到四個屬地化(成為行政區)的近衛大區逐漸興起後,管區成為介於近衛大區和行省之間的二級行政區職能更為明顯[3]。但這些早期的大區在325年至330年(如5世紀晚期的歷史學家Zosimus所宣稱的)是否已經具備了行政性和領土性仍然是學術界爭論的話題:直至4世紀40年代的早期行省就可能已經在很多領域具有了控制性。[4]最新一項研究報告指出在354年的近衛大區就已經明顯的地區化了。[5]
管區主事的主要工作是控制並監管行省總督並協調他們的政務活動[6]。在大區中,一開始主事就在司法職務(即對行省總督進行判決)上擁有較高的權威。自4世紀20年代後,君士坦丁一世將其權力擴大至原先獨立的地方庫務(Treasury)和皇室財產( Crown Estates)部門以及法律和財政上訴事務上[7]。通過一系列的將主事的職能交叉化和授予特別管轄權的方式,帝國統治者可以直接監管整個行政機構的運作,而不必干涉兩大財政部門(庫務部和皇室財產部)的日常運作。
儘管主事是總長(prefects)的代理,但並沒能在「所有的職能上」保持與上級長官相同的地位。例如主事的自由裁量權受到嚴格的限制,政策和監管制定權基本為零。[8]
儘管「至少在某些司法事務中其服從的程度尚不確定」,但主事在大區屬地化前後就已是總長下屬。 [9] 在4世紀40年代初採取了另一項安全措施,作為內部控制手段(出於對部門內部自我監管的高度不信任):任命行政總理的高級代理人(負責內政,行政監督和通信的大臣),擔任主事,總長和三位資深執政官的兩位(自4世紀30年代起行政總理就演變成僅次於近衛總長的政府第二大文職官員)的行政次長。 「雙重領導」(Dual,羅馬政治概念,意為相同職位同時任命至少兩位官員)的掌控模式構成了羅馬官僚機構中廣泛制衡機制的一部分,這是限制權力集中的一種古老做法。 [10]
主事、庫務審計官(rationalis)和皇室財產管理官(即magister和4世紀50年代後的rationalis)組成了管區的「領導」層。這三位官員職位與他們在帝國最高廷臣等級的上級長官相對應。這三位官員都會派駐於管區主事所在的城市。總長通常直轄2-4個管區,由其下屬代為管理,但依舊會配置庫務和皇室財產的職員。[11]自4世紀60年代中期的瓦倫提尼安王朝,特別是狄奧多西一世(379-395年)統治的帝國東部地區,伴隨着最高廷臣級別的中央集權化,以管區為中心的政策逐漸被顛覆(正如它的早期演變方式)。[12]
從4世紀末開始,儘管主事其在司法和財政方面的監管職責並未正式減少或改變,但實際政務運作中被逐漸繞過,某些管區尤為如此。[13]最高領導層的行政集權削弱了主事的重要性。將大多數的實物付稅轉換為黃金付稅後(西部在425年,東部在480年左右完成),簡化了繁瑣的稅務徵收和分配(而不是核算)體系,從而大大降低了主事之前作為「財政警察」的重要作用。[14]但各個管區衰亡速度並不相同,這是根據每個地區的情況有所不同:部分管區的重要性被削弱是因為4世紀末5世紀初大權在握的大區總長利用主事來強化自己的權力,迫使他們從行省總督身上榨取更多的價值;地區財政收入通過大區總長匯報被編入帝國國家預算的細目中,但從4世紀6年代中期開始,大區總長利用主事的職權,通過密切的監督或直接干預庫務部和皇室財產部的財政收入,侵犯他們的特殊權利和獨立性,在5世紀40年代遭到強烈抵制才結束。[15]
450年後,管區數量急轉直下,西部的不列顛管區、西班牙管區、阿非利加管區和伊利里庫姆管區已經消失,僅僅留存高盧管區和意大利管區南部。而庫務部和皇室財產部在地方上的部門已被削弱。儘管東部的七個管區(5個由主事領導,2個由總長直轄)編制仍舊保存完好,但主事在司法和財政的職責逐漸被大區總長-行省總督的兩級行政體系取代,這是4世紀之前政策的重啟。[16]即使如此,負責埃及富裕行省的主事、在與波斯的戰略邊防方面具有關鍵職責的東方伯爵(東方管區長官的特殊頭銜)、負責首都物資供的羅馬城主事,在6世紀依舊具有重要意義。[17]查士丁尼一世於535年廢除了東方大區下轄的東方管區、本都管區、亞細亞管區,539年廢除了埃及管區,理由是這些管區已經瀕臨崩潰,毫無效率和腐敗叢生,因此被裁撤(500年阿納斯塔修斯一世廢除了色雷斯管區)。[18]然而查士丁尼在542年又重新授予第一敘利亞行省總督東方伯爵頭銜並掌管原東方管區北部[19],在548年重建了本都管區:任命的主事負責維護治安,處理行省之間流竄的匪徒,為了達成此目的,主事還被賦予管轄士兵和官員的軍事民事權利。[20]廢除達契亞管區和馬其頓管區的日期不得而知,可能大概是7世紀。[21]
創立
早期所謂的「管區diocese」(διοίκησις,dioikesis,希臘語意為「行政」,引申為「省份」)是帝國東部希臘語境下的「行政單位」之意。「管區diocese」一詞在當時表示徵稅區,來後適用於徵稅區所轄領土。直到公元三世紀,該詞彙才指代行政改革下的被分割的大省。[22]但這些都不是傳統意義上在公元297年(儘管最新研究已將該日期追溯至314年)戴克里先皇帝創立的主事管區的前身;創立管區的時間在近百年來一直是學者們爭議的話題。[23]
管區主事的模式可能源於主動或被動作的作為agens vices praefectorum praetorio(意為代近衛總長行事),在近衛總長不在羅馬時被任命指揮禁衛軍:這一做法始於193-235年的塞維魯王朝。[24]在三世最後的十年裏,至少可以看到4位主事在北非、埃及和安納托利亞的行省中執行特殊任務。[25]
主事一開始主要是管理「財政」區官員、庫務部(Res Summa或Res Sumarum)的審計官(rationales)和皇室財產部(Res Privata)的管理官(magistri)所對應的司法和行政方面。在325-329年又以多種方式增添了財政職責。
地方上的「財政」管區首次出現於戴克里先統治的第二年286年。他們由庫務部門的審計官(rationales)領導。[26]這可能就是後來的管區模式。管區主事的模式也可能是原先存在於埃及、昔蘭尼加和克里特地方上的財政區,即庫務部(Res Summa)和皇室財產部(Res Privata),後在286年起被戴克里先在全國範圍內推行。[27]
儘管為了提升效率和方便管控,行省數量從3世紀90年代的47個增加到305年的100個,但行省仍然是主要的行政單位。然而屬地化的主事管區(時間在297至313、314年之間)的創立,預示着帝國在治理方式上尤其是正如君士坦丁王朝(312-363年)所熱衷的「基於地區的集中制」上所進行的重大而謹慎的革新。[28]政策轉向地方主義並不是突然出現的:這可能是自馬可·奧勒留起需要皇帝常駐於邊疆並巡視,統治中心逐漸遠離羅馬城的一個結果。[29]伴隨君士坦丁一世在325-329年對主要皇權(palatine)部門的合理化和削弱總長的職責,地區化政策初見成效。[30]這些變化使得主事比起掌管剛創立的管區時能更有效的控制管區的行政部門,特別是財政方面,打破了庫務部審計官的利益壟斷。[31]
在287年戴克里先部分重組了羅馬帝國的行政和稅款核定體系,儘管其基本部門在超過三個多世紀裏不斷調整仍然有效。改革包括一系列的全國性範圍的地方人口普查作為國家財政修補和穩定計劃的一部分。過去的50年裏帝國一直面臨外國入侵、僭主篡位和經濟衰退的威脅,危及帝國的統一和存亡。[32]財政改革的結果之一就是首次出現了現代意義上的正式預算(可調稅率和任何修改預算的方法在過去元首制時期僵化的財政體制之下是不可能實現的)。[33]在293-298年第一次四帝共治(293-305年)統治下還採取了其他的改革措施:將鑄幣廠遷移至軍隊大規模集中的地點;嘗試集中司法行政權於行省總督(而不是交給他們的法律助手:下級法官iudices pedanei);分離行省總督的軍事指揮權的改革持續進行,最終在君士坦丁一世統治初級完成,此後所有的行省總督(包括總長、主事和資深執政官)稱為純粹的文職官員;為了便於統治和管理整個帝國,戴克里先首創了四帝共治制(293-305年):有兩位正帝」奧古斯都「各統治半個帝國,並各配置一名副帝「凱撒」,同時輔以一位總長,副帝凱撒則沒有。[34]
戴克里先在284年將行省數量增加到47個,以加強中央政府的控制使得更容易的徵稅:[35]讓行省總督在人口較少的行省里有更充足的時間履行職責。[36]戴克里先統治末期行省數量增加到了104個。這些行省分別被劃分到12個管區下(根據維羅納職官表,意大利管區有兩位主事),也許確實是在戴克里先統治末期而不是之後。根據大約在395年的《百官志》記載:到327年,默西亞管區一分為二(北部的達契亞管區和南部的馬其頓管區):在370或380年,從東方管區中分出埃及管區,管區數量從12個增加到了14個。意大利管區也被一分為二(北部的補給意大利管區和南部的直轄意大利管區):主事駐紮在羅馬時意大利大區總長通常在米蘭,而當總長移駐到潘諾尼亞管區的錫米烏穆時主事則駐紮於米蘭。[37]高盧管區的特里爾一直是高盧大區總長的駐地,後遷移至阿爾勒。君士坦丁堡(359年才被正式定為第二首都)自330年亦或是395年(337-380年,皇帝僅駐紮在君士坦丁堡11年)起就一直是東方大區的首府。[38]按下轄行省數量(不是管區面積)來算:最大的管區是東方管區,下轄16個行省;最小的管區是不列顛管區,僅下轄4個行省。改革的另一個結果就是帝國官僚機構的規模猛增,其職員專業化程度也大大提高,幾乎全由領取俸祿的自由民擔任。當然按照現代標準,帝國官僚規模依舊很小,5000萬到6000萬人口中才有三到四萬人(不包括皇室財產部在地方上的管理人員)。[39]
君士坦丁改革
君士坦丁一世成為全羅馬唯一皇帝后於324年11月着手進行帝國行政部門的重組和部分合理化改革。過去政府行政高級部門的各種權限在某些情況下十分混亂。而改革使得行政部部門更加專業化、職責更加明確。[40]改革的焦點集中於總長一職。到3世紀晚期,總長就成為了皇帝的副手,類似副統帥「大維齊爾」,在325年三位總長的職權已經十分龐大。[41]君士坦丁在312年擊敗馬克森提烏斯後就撤銷了總長的現役軍隊指揮權:從此總長成為純粹的文職官員(但是仍然對軍隊的行政工作負責,特別後勤和徵兵)。[42]儘管如此,總長依舊可以身着象徵帝國紫色的軍人長袍,這是唯一被允許的官員(因而主事也有幸能夠穿上軍事長袍)。[43]
戴克里先早期特設了一項公共服務(liturgies)「年度軍事稅Annona Militaris」,從塞維魯王朝就開始在地方徵收用於軍隊的供應補給(這本應該是用於地方)並將其運輸到軍隊,現在清楚的將其納入政府預算中正稅的一部分。這項稅收完全由總長管控(其後也由主事監管)。[44]君士坦丁將財政部門分為三個部分授予近衛總長府、最高書記處(Sacrae Largitiones,前身是最高財政部Summae Res,319年起為書記處)和皇室財產部(Res Privata)各自下屬的財政部門(為了保持三大部門等級地位的一致,其財政賬目彼此獨立,這造成是不小的麻煩)。[45]君士坦丁也批准了後兩個部門的獨立性,同時解除了總長對行政總理(Magister Officiorum)的管轄。近衛總長還負責宮廷行政部和皇帝秘書處,是通訊安保部的代理人以及名義上皇帝衛隊的指揮官。作為帝國中央集權化和限定專業化過程的一部分,由皇帝親自任命這位負責帝國行政監管的官員。[46]
君士坦丁於325-329年(確切的時間仍待商榷)期間創立「屬地化」的近衛大區作為最高行政區是整個改革的重要組成部分,此前管區一直作為最大的領土治理單位。[47]早期的大區可能像管區一樣沒有明確的邊界,但是從4世紀40年代君士坦丁一世的兒子繼統治下,大區的控制「範圍」也變得更加固定。[48]每個大區都設有一名手握大權的近衛總長,這是皇帝之下最有權勢的官員。從318年起設有3位總長,在331年則證實有4位(分別在高盧、意大利、伊利里庫姆和君士坦丁一世設立的君士坦丁堡;在335-337年還短暫設立了第五位近衛總長在阿非利加)。[49]此後近衛大區數量一直在三個(高爐大區、意大利-阿非利加大區、東方大區)到四個(伊利里庫姆大區)變化,直至395年固定為四個。總長直轄其駐地所在的管區;剩餘管區由作為近衛總長助手的主事管理,它們享用了總長的部分權威。[50]
皇帝還解除了最高書記處參與任何關於徵收和分配菲貨幣化稅務;運營國家郵驛局(cursus publicus,此後其運營和維護移交至近衛大區政府)。[51]325年之前最高書記處在地方的審計官(rationales)就已經經常在徵稅方面協助皇室財產部的下級主管,並運營國家郵驛局。[52]此後最高書記處的職責僅限於監管大量的金銀稅的財政收入的徵收和分配,以及運營國營兵工廠、鐵廠、鑄幣廠和管理軍服製造、非法沒收財物的使用。330年最後的最高書記處下轄行省財政官被撤銷:他們大部分的稅收職權都移交給其所屬行省的總督。作為代替,最高書記處的地方審計官每年會派遣其代理人監督行省總督涉及繳納給庫務部門的稅款的行為(另外近衛大區和皇室財產部越來越多的效仿這種方法,作為中央機構實施的掌控手段,而不僅僅只是依賴常設的地方和行省公務員)。[53]
皇帝在合理化近衛大區府、最高書記處和皇室財產部三者之間的職責後,確保近衛總長和主事能夠監督甚至如有必要直接監管另兩個財政部門,而不會一定程度上干涉在他們的日常工作,他們的收入也依舊由國庫而不是大區政府撥付。327-328年間,君士坦丁將最高書記處(徵收用貨幣支付稅款的帝國財政部)和皇室財產部(皇帝的私人財產,即皇室財產,其收益由皇室財產部保留而不是交予皇帝本人或其家族)的財政債務案件上訴權交予主事、近衛總長和資深執政官的法庭,因為自從近衛總長成為財政首長,主持編制的年度普遍性預算以管區為基礎作為所有部門的財政核定區,所以可以向其法院上訴。但案件的一審仍交由最高書記處和皇室財產部的行政法庭。[54][55]但是這個額外的監管權並不允許大區政府干涉最高書記處和皇室財產部的日常工作,它們是由各自高級審計官掌控的獨立部門。審計官往往由侍從(comites)或皇帝的密友來擔任,他們直接向皇帝匯報工作。
改革迫使最高書記處和皇室財產部的職責和監管活動範圍的縮小,但這也正是主事對管區行政方面獲得的權力。不過主事與最高書記處和皇室財產部的審計官依舊組成了一個地方官員的三人委員會進行密切的工作,除了在少數管區外,他們的辦公場所都相距很近,這促進了合作並提高了效率。[56]這一變化的標誌就是在326年將管區主事從騎士階級第二等級的「最佳者」提升到元老最低等級的「聞名者」,而財政部門的同級官員至少在之後的40多年仍然只是騎士階級(埃及行省的審計官除外)。[57]
主事在其控制的行政中樞里還有額外的意義:在刑事和民事審判方面,通關相關案件,主事已經掌控了在管區中最高書記處和皇室財產部的職員(並最終掌控了行省);[58]最高書記處的財政部門採取的任何可能影響行省人口的措施都必須事先獲得皇帝或大區總長的批准,然後通知主事和行省總督後才可實行。[59]直到355年指控軍人犯有刑事和民事罪行嘗試在大區法院受審(自355年起刑事案件被告軍人和413年起民事案件被告軍人需在軍事法庭受審)。[60]
經過325-329年改革後,近衛總長仍是最高級別官員;是財政和大區政府首腦;也是首席法官(除皇帝外,他們可以做出最終裁決);還是軍需長官(掌管供給和後勤也是文官控制軍隊的一種手段)。[61]不過總長不在是國家行政首腦,他們不得不與庫務大臣、皇室財產大臣、帝國首席法務顧問、行政總理和帝國議會(imperial consistory)的四位最高將軍共享核心權利。總長在職權範圍外沒有任何權利,他們再也不能無可置疑的控制着帝國政府。[62]然而總長擁有了徵稅和國家經常性財政支出上的職責,[63]正如之前主事在財政職責上所反應出的變動,[64]總長接收了主事和總督的絕大多數財政報告。[65]
從330年起,主事擁有更大的權威(和元老頭銜),達到全盛時期並一直持續到5世紀初。[66]但從330年左右的情況來看,「管區」一詞被唯一用於主事行政區而不是最高書記處和皇室財產部的轄區開始。[67]管區作為大區和行省之間的中間層級發揮的作用更為明顯,但其官員權力等級制度並沒有以嚴格的垂直式結構發揮着作用:行省總督以及其他高級民事和軍事官員可以直接聯繫近衛總長或皇帝,反之亦然。儘管創立了屬地化的大區,但在君士坦丁王朝(312-363年)的行政策略是以地區為基礎的集權化,即以管區為核心。這一政策直到4世紀70年代才逐漸改變。[68]然而在385年發生了一此小而標誌性的改變,從行省和地區行省法院到廷臣首腦,時隔55年後再次被允許審判最高書記處和皇室財產部的財政債務上訴案。這也表明進一步的集權化其實犧牲了主事的權力(以前此類案件應交由主事)。[69]
組織結構和職責
全帝國龐大的政府官員大部分位於125個行省、15個管區的首府和兩個首都之中。其他地區的大多數平民很少能接觸到帝國官員,除非他們從駐地被派遣去執行特殊任務,例如財政周期內的經常性預定巡視或者總督建立全省範圍內的巡迴法庭。[70]
管區也是大型地區性的司法區。主事是主要的上訴法官,通常管理其管轄區域內的首次上訴案件。二次上訴則需經其同意後由法院向皇帝提出。[71]如果被主事駁回上訴,則交由大區總長終裁。[72]在查士丁尼一世統治之前,這一直都是官方有記載的上訴程序(「more appellationum」),但實際上這一程序從4世紀60年代開始就被規避,並在5世紀規避上訴越來越多,這是因為帝國政府難以控制上訴數量,上訴程序完全是自動進行,訴訟當事人試圖繞開主事和其他具有上訴管轄權官員,諸如城監(city prefects),習慣於避開省級和小型法院而把案件直接交給大區總長和皇帝,希望他們基於」協商「程序(「more consultationum」)給予終審判決。[73]主事亦具有初審管轄權,自從他們(包括總長和城監)不能推翻下級法院的決定,除非上訴。初審的職權賦予他們能在發生違規和貪污時擁有干涉的權力;如果他們拒絕上訴,就會被移送至最近的總長處理。[74]於是許多訴訟當事人試圖繞過主事以獲得最終裁決。這一行為使皇帝和高級官員頗為煩惱,因為他們對主事的監管權負有非常重要的行政責任[75]:主事是除了兩都及周邊區域和總長直轄管區之外,在管區內唯一具有上訴管轄權的官員。[76]
管區是帝國最大的財政區,近衛總長過去常以此為依據編制帝國全面性預算。[77]管區確保公共服務項目(liturgies/munera)能得到適當分配;管區的工作人員負責調查稅務欺詐和審計工作、覆審財政報告並將其會編至大區財政報告。[78]為了說明管區的重要性,可以看到大區的財政部門也是通過管區的財政幹事組建的。通訊官(cura epistolarum)和高級會計官(numerarii)進一步被劃分到各行省的相關部門由審計官(tractatores)領導。[79]司法部門則比財政部門級別要高。儘管每個大區都有自己的中央財政部門(arca),但是反而沒有諸如管區一級的最高書記處(SL)之類的地方庫務和儲備部門。[80]主事同時還作為軍隊供應和後勤事務(實際由最高書記處和軍隊的長官和官員辦理)的地方監督官員,[81]他們被要求在戰爭與和平時期,如果軍隊的人員和物資需要跨越行省,則需進行監督。
主事一職代表着榮耀(「dignitas」)。主事並不是像其下屬官員一樣的技術官僚,技術官僚中的高級官員負責管理本部門並給予行政對接。[82]主事的任期很少會超過一年,但是有些主事總共會任職兩三個管區。大部分主事都是中上層平民或者貴族,其中大多數都擔任過行省總督(任期一年),此前則有過數年作為行省總督或更高級官員下屬的司法或財務職員的經驗。在一個注重地位的階級社會中,較短的任期儘可能讓更多適合的職位開放,供適任者履職。他們預計代表總長和皇帝對管區行使監督控制權:協調行省行政並管轄總督,規範法院,保障總督的稅收和合理分配,保證總督制定的公務服務項目能合理分配,為國防和戰備工作提供後勤保障,處理大量來自民事和軍事的公文供政府高層使用。[83]主事在人口數量兩百萬到一千兩百萬人口的轄區中有300左右的下屬職員(東方管區有600人),[84]他們的辦公職員分為司法/行政和財政人員,處理政府收集的信息特別是財政相關的以供更高級別的行政廷臣使用(也可減輕皇帝和總長在司法事務上的負擔)。[85]
主事對於一般民眾而言難以觸及。主事只負責監督總督本人,而不需監管地方行政事務。除非被要求干涉,他們的職責就會轉變為對行省政府全面管控,監督並約束其行為。相比之下,總督的職責壓力則十分巨大,總督必須嚴格按照相關規定來管理其下屬的百名職員。主事是帝國行政系統的基礎,他們負責帝國的基層行政,管理着城市政府、成千上萬的市政官員、鎮議員和其他有資格的職員。從三世紀中葉開始,主事有更多職責為帝國政府和其所在的城市政府執行更多的任務和公共服務項目(以前大部分是自願行為而非強制)。[86]皇帝於是誘導市議會的成員,只要他們恪盡職守,就能提供在帝國行政部門工作的機會,從而被允許擺脫履行公共服務的職責(過去城市公共服務開支由富人們捐贈,三世紀後被強制分攤到市議員身上)。
儘管主事是管區內最重要的司法財政官員,但是他們的管理權力受到限制。主事並非政策制定者而是政策執行者,他們無權改變正稅和附加稅的需求量、稅率,核算、劃撥、減免或新增的政策。限制自由裁量權以防止政策的偏離和貪污腐敗,確保政策能夠充分執行,同時按照羅馬傳統將同一職權分給兩個及以上的官員(共治Collegiality),這也是中央控制地方官員的方法。但從另一方面來看,最高層壟斷決策權也是一把雙刃劍:一方面促使政策和政令被嚴格遵循;但另一方面也加劇了帝國行政體系的混亂,隨時面臨行政癱瘓的風險。即使是最簡單的問題,都接連不斷請求皇帝及其親信和高級官員提出澄清說明(以此避免地方官員獨斷專行)。[87]
主事、近衛總長和行政總理
從4實際40年代初期開始,中央政府為了更好的管控主事,每個大區和管區以及二到三個資深執政官行政區(proconsulates,亞該亞行政區、阿非利加行政區,有時還包括亞細亞行政區)都設有行政官員(princeps officii)作為行政總理(「magister officiorum」)的高級代理人(政府代理官agens in rebus)。於是政府代理官和事務官(men of affairs)開始作為通訊官員。在此過程中,他們為各個政府部門服務,這也使他們獲得了廣泛的帝國行政和法律的經驗和知識。[88]
設立政府代理官使得皇帝在行政部門高層有了現場的「監察人」,正如主事為總長監督管區。行政次長直接向行政總理和大區里他們名義上的直屬領導匯報工作。通過這種方式,行政總理得到一項額外的控制手段來管理所有的總長[89]、主事和兩到三位資深執政官。行政次長的工作是人事而非文員,[90]且不受主事管轄,下設四位常設官員,同時還有私人秘書。[91]
行政總理(magister officiorum)的職位原為新禁衛軍(Scholarian,君士坦丁一世解散舊禁衛軍「Praetorian Guard/cohortes praetoriae」後建立的精銳衛隊)中護民官頭銜的指揮官,是底層軍事文官。君士坦丁一世在312-313年間將其改為護民官頭銜的帝國書記長(head of the imperial secretariats)。而總理(「magister」,正式頭銜全稱:行政總理兼護民官「tribunus et magister officiorum」)的附加頭銜則是319年首次出現。皇帝還任命行政總理掌管負責帝國信使團,由騎兵組成的政府代理官(agentes in rebus)。君士坦丁一世在325-326年間解除了總長對行政總理的全面控制,與此同時還為皇帝的親信設立了伯爵頭銜。[92]此後總理成為負責國安、行政監督和通信的大臣。[93]
至此總理(或歷代皇帝設立一位總理後)成為皇帝的首席行政助手和監察人。儘管帝國高級文官和武官可以通過行政總理(MO)直接聯繫皇帝(總理並不值得去封鎖信息來源),各部門(大區、最高書記處和皇室財產部)的例行公事直接對接總理下屬的各個辦公室,如果需要,無論公文在何處,都能交給行政總理和隸屬皇宮的秘書處。這給予了總理管控總長,[94]主事和兩到三位資深執政官的措施,這也是交叉職能式行政模式另一個案例,目的在於增強政府的監視,安全和控制的能力。
行政官員(princeps officii)直接向行政總理和大區的上司匯報工作,並向總理作機密匯報。[95]行政官員負責審查所有進出行政部門的公務和被簽署的公文。[96]總長和主事的職員出辦公室後不得履行公務;未經行政官員的批准和命令,不得提起法律訴訟。[97]如果管區行政次長是一位經驗豐富且謹慎的官僚,那麼可能在實際上會加強主事的權威。[98]這些部門之間職能相互交叉是常見的慣例,也正因如此,主事、最高書記處和皇室財產部的審計官以及行政次長共同在管區權力體系中形成了三足鼎立的局面。[99]
行政部門的交叉和三足鼎立的模式在政府體系中無處不在,一直延續到縣市一級。這就是一種相互制衡的政策,旨在促進責任制,提升辦事和信息收集的能力,擴大失職處罰範圍,限制官員自主權,強制進行跨部門的執法監察(部門內部的自我監察並不可信),將各個政府部門整合成三個等級,強化政府安全性和中央控制力度。但這也造成了政府處理事務時間冗長,與地方通信緩慢,缺乏有效措施來儲存和檢索政府所需資料。[100]同時在財政方面建立複雜的審查體系以阻止拖延稅收、投機行為以及非法的回扣和稅務減免。[101]
管區的衰亡
在4世紀最後的幾十年裏,隨着大區作為行政權力機關的崛起,管區的重要性逐漸降低。瓦倫提尼安一世和狄奧多西一世從4世紀60年代中期開始對廷臣級別倒向集權化政策,更大的自由裁量權讓總長能夠改變一些事項,諸如改變稅款的需求量、控制通過高級代理官員直接對接行省的措施等。但這樣是否真夠提高效率仍然值得懷疑,最有可能的也只是給予了主事寬泛的職權和自由裁量權。[102]無論如何,管區只是逐漸緩慢的衰亡且時斷時續,因為有時中央行政部門需要它來獲取總督實際的工作情況並監督地方行政部門。同時主事掌控着稅收事務的監督權,於是總長也利用主事來侵佔最高書記處和皇室財產部的職權。[103]雖然主事的職責從未被正式廢除,因為許多職權直接繞過了他們。[104]在帝國西部,伴隨着羅馬當局的權威和管轄權力的衰減,管區在477年徹底消失(此時高盧大區在普羅旺斯最後的領地被西哥特人攻佔,帝國北方殘餘的蘇瓦松政權不隸屬於任何大區和管區),只有羅馬城的主事職務一直延續到535年東帝國光復意大利及之後(此時主事已經只是禮儀性的虛位閒職)。東哥特王國(491-536年)的狄奧多里克大帝在政府高盧普羅旺斯地區後重新建立了一個由主事領導的「殘餘」大區(507-536年),直到536年被法蘭克吞併。在帝國東部,雖然管區依舊存在,但主事的法庭已經很少召開,而大部分的財政職責也被削弱和簡化。過去主事主要的職責就是徵收繁瑣的實物付稅,但後來越來越多的轉向用黃金付稅,最終西部在425年完成付稅方式轉換,東部則在5世紀末基本完成。[105]然而這些變化並沒能簡化稅收的計算,但確實使得徵稅變得更加容易,這也讓原本有着重要作用的管區越來越無足輕重。根據查士丁尼法典第10章23條3-4款記載的468年東部皇帝利奧一世的敕令,管區需確保最高書記處從行省總督收繳的稅款不會被挪用到大區政府,但是允許大區政府建立龐大的黃金儲備,這是過去的稅收制度中所沒有的。[106]440年之後發生了管區發生了顯著的變化,標誌着帝國行政區劃制度逐步回歸到前管區時代,即大區-行省兩級行政區統治,管區則越來越顯得多餘。到查士丁尼一世時認為管區幾乎毫無作用,而更願意增加行省總督的權威和俸祿。於是6世紀30年代進行的龐大政府改革的一部分,在535年和538年廢除了大部分的管區。[107]這一改革措施也被推廣到了新光復的意大利和非洲地區(533年)。儘管在554年查士丁尼皇帝頒佈的國事詔書中保留了羅馬城的主事並恢復了意大利主事,作為安撫元老院貴族成員的手段。[108]然而在568年倫巴底人入侵之後的二十年裏,意大利的行政體制蕩然無存。管區是國內政局穩定且不受外敵侵犯的條件下建立的,其主要任務之一就是保障帝國的職業軍隊的供給與後勤。然而5世紀起大量日耳曼部族遷徙至西部帝國境內後局勢動盪,而沒有常備軍支持,地方也就不在需要高級的行政組織結構,這就造成了管區體制的衰亡,並終結了意大利地區以外整個行省級別之上的帝國行政體制。
教會教區
公元313年君士坦丁一世和李錫尼共同頒佈米蘭敕令,承認了基督教的合法地位後,教會很快按照羅馬民事行政體制組建了自己的行政區劃。但是教會採用「教區diocese」一詞來稱呼主教管轄的行政單位,其區域大致相當於行省大小。它並不是指代一個地區,而是作為民事行政機構。因為主教數量多於行省數量,所以教會教區一般比民事管區小得多。隨着基督教組織的發展,教會的地區單位發展成了大主教區(archdiocese)。到5至8世紀,隨着西部羅馬帝國隕落,舊的世俗行政結構發生動搖,主教開始為日耳曼王國的統治者們提供額外的行政管理。羅馬元老院貴族的社會地位與之前在帝國政府擔任的職位相關,依舊在地方政府擔當要職,補足了教會管理剩餘的真空地帶,他們直到6世紀才徹底消失。帝國舊貴族體系徹底崩潰後,許多原貴族被吸納到教會中,一些權力從世俗官員轉移到了宗教領袖,這是教會和國家緊密結合的必然結果,被稱為政教合一,但皇帝、國王和公爵們依舊凌駕於教會之上。教會的行政管理體系和管轄權基本上與羅馬民事管區保持一致,直至後者消亡。
一千年之後,奧斯曼帝國征服東部羅馬帝國後也有一個類似的過程(詳見奧斯曼帝國的基督教和猶太教)。原來的基督教主教被吸納到新帝國的政治體系中(米利特製度),最後殘存的羅馬文明體制被徹底掃除。雖然古代的教區逐漸被細分,但是直到現代,其邊界依舊和早已消失的羅馬行政區劃保持一致。
司法轄區
在古羅馬。「diocese」可以描述司法裁判官的管轄範圍,[109]實際上是法院轄區。這個術語來源於當時羅馬在亞洲設立的大型資深執政官行省的行政安排。這種轄區是行省下轄的一個分區,以該地首要城市命名,總督在其任期內必須到每個轄區審理案件(進行巡迴審判)。[110]裁判區的形勢最早在西塞羅時代就已存在,他在一封信上提到了奇里乞亞行省新增了三個司法轄區(喀彼拉、阿帕墨亞和辛那達)。[111][112]後來「轄區diocese」一詞也被用於帝國西部的行省中,例如在阿非利加行省,該行省的「轄區diocese」是指行省資深執政官下屬的司令官統治的區域。元首制時期(公元前27年-公元284年)的大型行省的資深執政官在任期內難以走遍整個行省,於是不得不頻繁的指派司令官代為進行巡迴審判。[113]直到加里恩努斯統治時期,皇帝有時會直接任命元老院行省的資深執政官而不是像亞細亞行省和阿非利加行省那樣進行行政改組。皇帝通常任命這些資深執政官時還會伴隨着派遣糾察官到大型行省劃分的「轄區diocese」中。[114]這裏的「轄區diocese」並不能和近衛總長下屬的主事統治的「管區diocese」混淆。
「diocese」一詞還指代城市中市法官具有管轄權的區域領土。「diocese」轉寫的希臘語「dioikesis(διοίκησις)」在此語境下應該對應拉丁術語「市轄區regio」。[115] [[Category:行政区划单位]] [[Category:罗马帝国管区]]
- ^ Constantin Zuckerman, 'Sur la liste de Verone et la province de Grande Armenie, la division de l'empire et la date de création des dioceses, 2002 Travaux et Memoires 12 Mélanges Gilbert Dagron, pp. 618-637 argues for a decision to create diocese by Constantine and Licinius at the meeting in Milan in February 313; since 1980 several scholars have suggested later dates (303, 305, 306, 313/14) than the traditional date of 297 set by Mommsen in the late 19th century
- ^ For a recent discussion, Laurent J. Cases, Historia 68, 2019/3 353-367, pp. 354-356, who reports the weight of scholarly opinion is still for 297 for which there is scant evidence "while Diocletian probably did increase the number of agentes vices praefectorum, Constantine created the vicariate in the year 313"
- ^ David Potter suggests Constantine in expanding the number of prefects to 4 in 330 intended to recreate the Tetrarchy with prefects rather than co-emperors and their lieutenants, the Caesars, Divisio Regni 364, East and West in the Roman Empire of the Fourth Century an End to Unity, Ed. Roald Dijkstra, Sanne van Poppel, Danielles Slootjes, 'Measuring the Power of the Roman Empire,' p. 44, Radboud Studies in Humanity Vol 5. 2015
- ^ The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine, Ed. Noel Lenski, 'Bureaucracy and Government,' Christopher Kelly, pp. 186-187, 201-202, states they were not the four fully developed prefectures the 5th-century writer Zosimus had in mind as existed in 395 - Porena opts for fully operational from 325, p. 201, footnote 15ISBN 978-0-521-52157-4; there were three prefects in 325 - in Trier, in Italy and one with Constantine; and four in 331, five from 335-337; cf. Timothy Barnes who argues that the later Constantinian prefects are more expressions of the emperor's dynastic aims than definitively administrative in character: Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire, 2011, pp. 290-293 ISBN 978-1118782750; previously prefects were personal, i.e. attached to the office of the emperor and not territorially defined
- ^ Laurent J. Cases, Historia 68, 2019/3, p. 360
- ^ Pat Southern, The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, 2001 p. 165 ISBN 0-415-23944-3; The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine, Ed. Noel Lenski, 'Bureaucracy and Government,' Christopher Kelly, pp. 185-187, 201-202ISBN 978-0-521-52157-4
- ^ Pat, Southern, The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, 2001 p. 165 ISBN 0-415-23944-3; M.F. Hendy, Studies in the Byzantine Monetary Economy, 1985 300-1450, pp. 373-377, "independent ministries" until mid-5th centuryISBN 978-0521088527; Jacek, Wiewiorowski The Judiciary of Diocesan Vicars in the Later Roman Empire, 2016, p. 83, "the responsibility of the vicar was to exercise control of the civilian administration in the diocese;" L.E.A. Franks, review of The Judiciary of Diocesan Vicars in the Later Roman Empire, Jacek Wiewiorowski 2016 ISBN 978-83-232-2925-4 in Byzantinische Zeitschrift 206 Vol 109 Part 2 pp. 988-994 {ISBN|978-83-232-2925-4}}
- ^ A.H.M. Jones, Later Roman Empire, Vol ! 1964, p, 47 "The vicars seem to have deputized for the praetorian prefects in all their manifold functions"; L.E.A. Franks, review of The Judiciary of Diocesan Vicars in the Later Roman Empire, Jacek Wiewiorowski 2016 ISBN 978-83-232-2925-4 in Byzantinische Zeitschrift 206 Vol 109 Part 2 pp. 990-991
- ^ The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine, Ed. Noel Lenski, 'Bureaucracy and Government', Christopher Kelly, pp. 185 ISBN 978-0-521-52157-4; also for one discussion - Migl, Joachim, Die Ordnung der Amter Prätorianerpräfektur und Vikariat in der Regionsverwaltung des Römischen Reiches von Konstantin bis zur Valentinianischen Dynastie, 1994, pp. 64-68; A. Pignaniol, L'empire chretien, 1972, p. 354, "Ils ne dépendent pas des préfets du prétoire mais directement de l'empereur, et l'on fait appel de leurs décisions judiciaires à l'empereur; appeals from their verdict went straight to the emperor, Theodosian Code, 11, 30, 16 (331); but cf. in a law of 328 CTh. 11, 16, 4 addressed to Aemilianus Constantine refers to "your vicars." Prefects could not overturn the decision of vicar except on appeal; and the authority of vicars was not derivative from prefects but a share of it given to them in their own right by the emperor, CTh. 1, 15, 7, 377, "the dignity of vicar by its very name indicates that it assumes a part (of the prefecture) that it often has the power if our inquiry and is accustomed to represent the reverence of our judgment;」 Cassiodorus, 「Tu autem vicarius dixeris et tua privigelia non reliquia, quando propria est jurisdictio quae a principe datur. Habes enim cum praefectis aliquam portionem,」 6, 15 - Moreover the you will have been designated vicar and your prerogatives (are) not unchanged, when the jurisdiction which is given by the emperor is his own. For you have with prefects some portion
- ^ Giardina, Andrea, Aspetti della burocrazia nel basso impero, Edizioni dell』Atneo & Bizzarri, 1977, pp. 45-93 who describes the empire-wide placement of agents in major cities as a web that connected together the administrative 'nodes' located in the larger towns and cities, p. 71; Christopher Kelly, Ruling the Later Roman Empire,2004, p. 206, 210; Jones, Later Roman Empire, 1964 pp. 103-104, 128; Kelly in Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine, pp. 188-190
- ^ there was in addition a 'rationalis' for Sardinia and Corsica, and Sicily (although only a province - perhaps a scribal error or elevation in status, and one each for Numidia and Africa, two in the diocese of Pannonia, A.H.M. Jones, Later Roman Empire, 1964 p. 48 and from the Notitia Dignitatum circa 395 AD.; usually there were prefects in Gaul at Trier, northern half of the diocese of Italy in Milan; in the Balkans at times stationed in Serdica, Thessaloniki, or Sirmium and for Oriens at Constantinople or some other city; R. Delmaire, Les largesse sacres et res private, Latomus, 1989, pp. 171-172, 181; the RP regional managers was subordinate to the SL until sometime in the 350s during the reign of Constantius II; they always worked closely together sometimes substituting for each other, Jones op. cit. p. 1414-1416; Delmaire, p. 189; and in the West part of the RP's revenue went to the SL, Delmaire, chapter on 'Tituli Largionales;' King, C.E., Ed., Imperial Revenue, Expenditure and Monetary Policy in Fourth Century A.D., The Fifth Oxford Symposium and Monetary History, BAR International Series 76, 1980, chapters on The Res Privata by F. Millar and the SL by C. E. King
- ^ Noel Lenski, Failure of Empire, 2002, ISBN 978-0-520-23332-4; M. Malcolm Errington, Roman Imperial Policy from Julian to Theodosius, 2006, pp. 261-264' Jones, pp. 405-410
- ^ Jacek Wiewiorowski, The Judiciary of Diocesan Vicars in the Later Roman Empire, English Edition 2016, pp. 292-293, 297 ISBN 978-83-232-2925-4;R. Malcom Errington, Roman Imperial Policy from Julian to Theodosius, 200, pp. 3-4 pp. 261–262 ISBN 978-0-8078-3038-3; L.E.A. Franks, review of The Judiciary of Diocesan Vicars in the Later Roman Empire, Jacek Wiewiorowski 2016 ISBN 978-83-232-2925-4 in Byzantinische Zeitschrift 206 Vol 109 Part 2 pp. 988–994
- ^ Jones, Later Roman, Empire; 1964, pp. 207-208, 235, 460-61; L.E.A. Franks, review of The Judiciary of Diocesan Vicars in the Later Roman Empire, Jacek Wiewiorowski 2016 ISBN 978-83-232-2925-4 in Byzantinische Zeitschrift 206 Vol 109 Part 2 p. 992
- ^ R. Delmaire, Les largesse sacres et res private, Latomus, 1989, pp. 707-712; Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 1964, pp. 414, 434-435
- ^ Roland Delmaire Les largitiones sacrees et res private, Latomus, 1989, pp. 703-714 ISBN 978-272-83061-38; Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284-602, pp. 280-283 ISBN 0-8018-3353-1; L.E.A. Franks, review of The Judiciary of Diocesan Vicars in the Later Roman Empire, Jacek Wiewiorowski 2016 ISBN 978-83-232-2925-4 in Byzantinische Zeitschrift 206 Vol 109 Part 2 pp. 988-994
- ^ Jacek Wiewiorowski, The Judiciary of Diocesan Vicars in the Later Roman Empire, English Edition 2016, pp. 292-293, 297 ISBN 978-83-232-2925-4
- ^ Jones, pp. 280-283
- ^ Jones, pp. 294
- ^ Jones, pp. 294
- ^ A.H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284-602, 1964, pp. 404, 408-410, 280-283
- ^ Cambridge Ancient History XII, 2001 p. 161 ISBN 978-0-521-30199-2
- ^ Discussed in Zuckermann; Joachim Migl, Die Ordnung der Amter des Pratorianerprafaktur und Vicariat in der Regionsverwaltung des Romischen Reiches von Konstantin bis zur Valentinianischen Dynsatie, 1993. pp. 54-58; Jacek Wiewiorowski, The Judiciary of Diocesan Vicars in the Later Roman Empire, English Edition 2016, pp. 52-46 ISBN 978-83-232-2925-4; Timothy Barnes who now opts for 313/14 in Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire, 2011 pp. 177-178 and in numerous other sources from the late 19th century onwards. Wiewiorowski tabulates dates chosen by scholars in a published paper delivered in Nish in April 2013. By year: 297: Pallu de Lessert, 1899; Kornemann, 1905; Seston, 1946; Ensslin, 1958; Scheurmann, 1960; Jones, 1964; De Martino, 1967; Guademet, 1967; Arnheim, 1970; Hendy, 1972; Christol, 1977; Barnes, 1982; Chastagnol, 1985; Hendy, 1985; Sargenti, 1986; Bleckman, 1997; Carrie & Rouselle, 1999; Kuhoff, 2001; Bowman, 2005; Lo Cascio, 2005; Kulikowski, 2005; Demandt, 2007; Franks, 2012. 303: De Vita Evrard, 1985. After 306: Cuq, 1899; Potter, 2004 306-313: Porena, 2004 +312: Migl, 1994, 313/14; Noetlichs, 1982; Zuckerman, 2002; for a recent discussion, Laurent J. Cases, Historia 68, 2019/3 353-367, pp. 354-356, who reports the weight of scholarly opinion is still for 297 for which there is scant evidence "while Diocletian probably did increase the number of agentes vices praefectorum, Constantine created the vicariate in the year 313"
- ^ Ulpian, jurist during the Severan Dynasty 192-235, 「agens vices praefectorum ex mandatis principis cognoscet」 and 「Et is cui mandata iurisdicito est fungetur vice eius qui mandavit, non sua, Dig. II, 1, 16; 「A praefectis vero praetorio vel eo, qui vice praefectis,」 XXXII, 1, 4.; Cledonius 5th century grammarian in Constantinople, 「Saepe quaesitum est utrum vicarius dici debeat is qui ordine codiclliorum vices agit amplissimae praefecturae; ille vero cui vices mandatur propter absentiam praefectorum, non vicarius sed vices agens; non praefecturae sed praefectorum dicitur tantum,」 in Grammatici Latini. V. 13
- ^ For an examination of these four Zuckermann
- ^ Roland Delmaire Les largitiones sacrees et res private, Latomus, 1989, pp. 173, 181 ISBN 978-272-83061-38
- ^ Roland Delmaire, Les largesses sacres et res private, Latomus, 1989, pp. 171-172, 181, the model is the pre-existing fiscal district of Egypt, Cyrenaica and Crete (detached in 294 and tied to Achaia)ISBN 978-272-83016-38
- ^ R. Malcom Errington, Roman Imperial Policy from Julian to Theodosius, 200, pp. 3-4, 261-262 ISBN 978-0-8078-3038-3
- ^ Cambridge History of the Ancient World, XII, p. p. 64
- ^ Cambridge Ancient History XII, pp. 179-183
- ^ Delmaire, pp. 197, 199 204-204, 245..."the power of the 'rationales' did not cease to be degraded for the 4th century after reaching the apogee of their power between 285-320. At their creation, they were omnipotent in fiscal matters of the diocese but lost it to the advantage of the governors concerning the Annona, cursus publicus and in general all that part of the fiscal (regime) entrusted to the prefects," trans. from the French, p. 204
- ^ CAH XII, p. 377
- ^ Diocletian's system was characterized by indiction, a published schedule of budgetary requirements within a given period and census - indiction did not take into account ability to pay, Roger Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 2004, p. 38, ISBN 07486-1661-6, the system was distributive not contributive which is based on ability to pay; Other Means - Clyde Pharr, The Theodosian Code, 2001 12th Edition, p. 596 ISBN 978-1-58477-146-3: (re)appraise the measured assessible land and set the rates, 'censitor'; adjust inequalities and inequities in the tax assessments, 'peraequator'; inspect the taxable land to determine rates, 'inspector' who was a check on the 'censitor'; examine, revise and re-allocate rates on individual possessions,' discussor'; Jones, Later Roman Empire, p. 449; It’s amazing but until the reign of Diocletian the Empire had no global budget! This was due to the 「inelastic fiscal structure of the empire which relied on fixed levies, not production, and which had not been adjusted form the foundation of the empire," Jones, p. 9; also in David, S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395, 2004, pp. 59, 398, also Diocletian's reforms introduced "regularity assessment was the evident effort to impose coherent units of extraction across all provinces," p. 334; 「A fundamental problem of state finance had been that taxes had been cumbrously expressed in terms of fixed amounts of money, which produced inadequate income in periods of currency inflation, or as percentages, where ignorance of the sums being taxed meant that the state could not predict how much a particular tax would bring in.」— Peter Salway, The Oxford Illustrated History of Roman Britain, 1993, p. 234 ISBN 0-19-822984-4; for an excellent of description of the later imperial tax regime, Cam Grey, Constructing Communities in the Late Roman Countryside, 2011, pp. 178-197 ISBN 978-1-107-01162-5
- ^ for discussion of the range of Diocletian's reforms -Jones, The Later Roman Empire. Vol. I, pp. 42-50, 101-102, 449 ; The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine, Ed. Noel Lenski, 'Bureaucracy and Government,' Christopher Kelly, pp. 183-92 ISBN 978-0-521-52157-4; David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay 180-395, 2004, pp. 367-377 ISBN 0-415-10058-5; Pat Southern, The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, 2001 pp. 153-167 ISBN 0-415-23944-3; Roger Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 2004, ISBN 0-7486-1661-6; M.F. Hendy, Studies in the Byzantine Monetary Economy, 1985 300-1450, pp. 373-377 ISBN 978-0521088527
- ^ CAH XII. p. 123
- ^ Pat Southern, p. 165
- ^ Jones, p. 373
- ^ the rise of the prefectures as administrative dates from the Valentinian Dynasty post-364 esp. the build-up of Constantinople as the seat of government in the East beginning under Valens, 364-378, even though he spent almost no time there, and which was finally achieved by Theodosius I, 379-395, Errington, p. 262
- ^ Peter Heather, CAH XIII, pp. 189-190, 209; Peter Kelly, Ruling the Later Roman Empire, p. 69
- ^ Kelly. pp. 187-191
- ^ Jones, p. 371, "grand vizier;" Kelly, pp. 186; David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay 180-395, 2004, pp. 367-377 ISBN 0-415-10058-5; Pat Southern, The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, 2001 pp. 153-167 ISBN 0-415-23944-3
- ^ Pat Southern & Karen R. Dixon, The Late Roman Army, 1996, pp. 63-64
- ^ Javier Arce, El Ultimo Siglo de la Espana Roman, 284-409, second edition 2009, p. 74 ISBN 978-84-206-8266-2
- ^ CAH, pp. 284-286, 319 in another theory it was not a special tax but part of the normal tax earmarked for the army p. 381 overseen by vicars p. 181; Pat Southern and Karen R. Dixon, The Late Roman Army, 1996, pp. 62-63 ISBN 0-300-06843-3; Cam Grey, Constructing Communities in the Late Roman Countryside, 20111, pp. 178-197 ISBN 978-1-107-01162-5 the Annona Militaris is one example of a change from ad hoc and arbitrary to fixed, permanent charges within total budgetary process in the modern sense and, for which, vicars were responsible in their dioceses
- ^ Delmaire, p. 703-704
- ^ Kelly, pp. 186-190
- ^ The Cambridge Ancient History XII, 2001, pp. 170-183, 'The new state of Diocletian and Constantine from the Tetrarchy to the reunification of the empire'ISBN 978-0-521-30199-2; Jones, The Later Roman Empire. Vol. I, pp. 42-50, 101-102, 449 ISBN 0-8018-3353-1; The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine, Ed. Noel Lenski, 'Bureaucracy and Government,' Christopher Kelly, pp. 183-192 ISBN 978-0-521-52157-4; David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay 180-395, 2004, pp. 367-377
- ^ Kelly, pp. 186-187
- ^ David Potter suggests Constantine in expanding the number of prefects to 4 in 330 intended to recreate the Tetrarchy with prefects rather than co-emperors and their lieutenants, the Caesars, Divisio Regni 364, East and West in the Roman Empire of the Fourth Century an End to Unity, Ed. Roald Dijkstra, Sanne van Poppel, Danielles Slootjes, 'Measuring the Power of the Roman Empire,' p. 44, Radboud Studies inhumanity Vol 5. 2015; cf. Timothy Barnes who argues that the later Constantinian prefects are more expressions of the emperor's dynastic aims than definitively administrative in character: Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire, 2011, pp. 290-293 ISBN 978-1118782750; previously prefects were personal, i.e. attached to the office of the emperor and not territorially defined
- ^ Codex Theodosianus 1, 15, 7 (377) shared, not derived from prefects, 「vicaria dignitas ipso nomine se trahere indicet portionem et saepe cognitionis habeat potestatem et iudicationis nostrae soleat repraesentare reverentiam,」 CTh. 1, 15, 7 (377), "the dignity of vicar by its very name indicates that it assumes a part (of the prefecture) that it often has the power if our inquiry and is accustomed to represent the reverence of our judgment;」 Cassiodorus, 「Tu autem vicarius dixeris et tua privigelia non reliquia, quando propria est jurisdictio quae a principe datur. Habes enim cum praefectis aliquam portionem,」 6, 15 - Moreover the you will have been designated vicar and your prerogatives (are) not unchanged, when the jurisdiction which is given by the emperor is his own. For you have with prefects some portion
- ^ CAH XII pp. 181-182; Roland Delmaire Les largitiones sacrees et res private, Latomus, 1989, pp. 173, 181, 202-205, 245 ISBN 978-272-83061-38; L.E.A. Franks, review of The Judiciary of Diocesan Vicars in the Later Roman Empire, Jacek Wiewiorowski 2016 ISBN 978-83-232-2925-4 in Byzantinische Zeitschrift 206 Vol 109 Part 2 pp. 988-994; Jones, LRE pp. 101--102, 414, 434, 448-451- 485-486; M.F. Hendy, Studies in the Byzantine Monetary Economy, 300-1450 A.d., 1985 pp. 373-377 ISBN 978-0521088527; from the early 340s inspection of the State Post was placed with master of the offices; maintenance remained with the prefecture; and costs paid for by provincials along the routes
- ^ Delamire,197, 204-206, 245
- ^ introduction of the procurators by Diocletian, CAH XII, p. 76; Delmaire, disbandment of procurators, p. 206-209 and SL comptroller duties post-325/330 204-205
- ^ Jones, pp. 485-486, 1207; Franks, p. 992; CTh. 11, 16, 28 of 359 mentions the transference by Constantine which can tracked to 327–329 by reference to laws 14 and 18
- ^ CAH XII p. 380
- ^ the exceptions were Egypt, which did not have its own vicar till 370 or 380, and in the West according to the Notitia Dignitatum of circa 395, there were 6 vicars, 2 prefects governing dioceses, but 11 comptrollers (two in Africa, two in Pannonia, and one for the Island of Sicilia, Sardinia and Corsica Notitia Dignitatum; Franks, pp. 990-992
- ^ Delmaire, op. cit. p 39 from CIL II, 4107 or by 344 at the latest CTh. 8, 2, 10. The heads of the SL and RP were made 'comites' the same year; and Prefect of the Annona of Rome senator also in 326 from Chastognol cited by Rickman, The Corn Supply of Rome, 1980 p. 200, dated the elevation of the prefectus annonae of Rome to senator to the year 326
- ^ Jones, pp. 486, 1207
- ^ "The Largitiones issued 'dispositiones' (administrative regulations, timetables, schedules), 'mandata' (standard instructions, orders issued to officials) and 'commonitoria' (orders, memoranda) Delmaire p. 68
- ^ Jones, pp. 487-488
- ^ Southern and Dixon, The Late Roman Army, 1996, pp. 62-63, ISBN 0-300-06843-3; R. Mitthof, Annona Militaris: Die Heeresversorgung im spätantiken Aeygpten, (Papyrologica Fiorentiana 32) 2001, pp. 273-286. Mithoff states that civilian control was for security purposes but it was inefficient as it relied on reluctant local officials and liturgists to collect and distribute massive quantities of supplies which could have been more efficiently bought on the open market as required; Justinian reverted to direct purchase. The lack of gold in circulation until the end of the 4th century hindered the transition, Delmaire, pp. 709-712; Jones 207-208, 235, 460-461
- ^ Kelly, p. 189
- ^ CAH XII, p. 380
- ^ Franks, p. 991-992
- ^ Jones. p. 450
- ^ Franks, p. 992
- ^ Joachim Migl, Die Ordnung der Amter des Pratorianerprafaktur und Vicariat in der Regionsverwaltung des Romischen Reiches von Konstantin bis zur Valentinianischen Dynsatie, 1993. pp. 54-58; Franks, pp. 992-993
- ^ R. Malcolm Errington, 2006, p. 261-262, ISBN 978-0-8078-3038-3
- ^ Delmaire, pp. 709-711; Jones, pp. 485-486; Franks, p. 992; the laws allowing appeals once again to the counts of the SL and RP with the emperors CTh. 11, 35, 45 = CJ 7, 62 26 to the RP and 46 to the SL both of year 385
- ^ The picture is one of occasional interventions from and a permanent awareness of the higher levels of provincial government; the whole bureaucratic machinery seems to have been intended to maximize revenues and channel these according to government policies; including a system of checks and measures to insure accountability, Roger Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 2004, p. 35 ISBN 0-7486-1661-6; speaking of Egypt, "The imperial administration was therefore present above all in those cities in which the governors had their seats," Egypt in the Byzantine World, 300- 700 AD, Ed. Roger Bagnall, 2007, 'The Imperial Presence: Government and army, pp. 249-251 ISBN 978-0521-14587-9, 4 cities in a crowded land, 2,000 officials total for 4.75 million inhabitants
- ^ Jones, p. 281; Codex Theodosianus 11, 30, 16 (331)
- ^ CTh. 11, 30. 16 (331))If the litigant won his appeal with the prefect the vicar could be fined for having refused the appeal
- ^ cf. Relationes of Symmachus, urban prefect of Rome 382-384, who passed on cases to get them off his hands, Barrow, R.H., Prefect and Emperor, The Relationes of Symmachus, A.D. 384, Oxford University Press, 1973 Barrow, The Relationes of Symmachus; Jones, pp. 490-491; Wiewiorowski, pp. 291-292
- ^ CTh. 11, 30 16, 331)
- ^ Jones, pp. 493-496
- ^ (in the southern part of the Diocese of Italy where the Urban Prefect of Rome also had this authority; from 361 the urban prefect of Constantinople had appellate authority in 9 adjacent provinces in the dioceses of Thrace, Pontus and Asia to match the dignity of the prefect in 'Old' Rome, and of course the praetorian prefect of the East); proconsuls were iudices ordinarii judges of the first instance and vice sacra iudicantes, appellate judges in their own provinces, Jones, p. 481-482; the four prefects of the Annona did not have appellate jurisdiction - if something went amiss cases went to a prefect or vicar, for a complicated multi-jurisdictional case headed by the vicar in Africa CTh. 11, 1, 13 (366)
- ^ CAH XII p. 181
- ^ Franks, pp. 990-991; 'munera' is the plural of 'munus', which in effect was a type of tax; see CTh. 1, 12, 2 (319) of the proconsul of Africa's financial oversight duties which were identical to those of the vicar of Africa
- ^ the prefects used the latter in preference from the mid-5th century to communicate directly with their provincial permanent counterparts and ad hoc deputies in the provinces thus bypassing the diocesan department heads, the 'curae epistolarum,' one sign of diocesan decline, Jones, pp. 281
- ^ J. F. Haldon, Byzantium in the Seventh Century, 1990 pp. 188-189 ISBN 0-521-31917-X who cites Jones pp. 428-429 for the operation of the SL depots
- ^ Southern and Dixon, The Late Roman Army, 1996, pp. 62-63, ISBN 0-300-06843-3; Jones, pp. 623-630; R. Mitthof, Annona Militaris: Die Heeresversorgung im spätantiken Aeygpten, (Papyrologica Fiorentiana 32) 2001, pp. 273-286
- ^ Jones, p. 606
- ^ "…the Comes Orientis had special powers and duties in connection with military matters (probably concerning the organization of supplies and the quartering of troops),」 Downey, Glanville, A History of Antioch in Syria, 1963, p. 355. The last comes orientis 335-337 was making preparations for Constantine's invasion of Persian when the emperor died; also the vicar of Britain, the Augustal Prefect (vicar) of Egypt and the vicars of Pannonia and Dacia had important defense responsibilities;
- ^ A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 1964 pp. 374, 450, 496, "the vicars seem to have deputized for the praetorian prefects in all their manifold functions,' p. 47; Stephen Williams, Diocletian and the Roman Recovery, 1985, p. 110, "The prefect had ultimate responsibility ...for the whole apparatus of civil administration, including taxation...he was now able to delegate much of the detailed work to the 12 vicars with their attached fiscal departments" ISBN 0-416-01151-9
- ^ A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 1964 pp. 374, 450, 496, "the vicars seem to have deputized for the praetorian prefects in all their manifold functions,' p. 47; Stephen Williams, Diocletian and the Roman Recovery, 1985, p. 110, "The prefect had ultimate responsibility ...for the whole apparatus of civil administration, including taxation...he was now able to delegate much of the detailed work to the 12 vicars with their attached fiscal departments" ISBN 0-416-01151-9
- ^ Jones, LRE, 1964, pp. 724-766
- ^ Kelly, pp. 190-194, 204-212
- ^ Two sources in the 5th century indicate their number 1174 and 1248 in the East, Jones, p. 578
- ^ Jones, p. 128
- ^ Palme, Bernhard, 『Die Officia der Statthalter in der Spatantike,』 Antiquite Tardive, 7, 1999, pp. 108-110
- ^ CTh. 6. 27. 8 435
- ^ The Age of Constantine, Kelly, pp. 187-190
- ^ Giardina, Andrea, Aspetti della burocrazia nel basso impero, Edizioni dell』Atneo & Bizzarri, 1977, pp. 45-93, 「the agentes in rebus were part of a widespread system of control. There were various sectors of the government which they operated in as guarantees of political security. These sectors covered all vital nerve tissue bundles (「ganglia」) (or focuses of strength metaphorically) of the State, from the lines of communication to imperial defense factories, from the transmission of messages to the command of the civil service bureaux, to prevent rebellion, to control the administration and apply the laws: there were sore points for the late ancient State, and for this reason, these were subjects of great concern to the central government and, what’s more, if one thinks about it, the reason for the very frequent orders concerning the collective responsibility of government departments. The presence of agentes in rebus, who through long familiarity with administrative functioning, were experts in jobs of varying responsibilities must have guaranteed the efficient carrying out of technical work, administrative surveillance and political control,「 p. 71
- ^ Jones, p. 128
- ^ Jones, p. 128; A. Piganiol, L』empire chretien (325-395), 1947, p. 321 「lui-meme ne depend pas des prefets du pretoire, mais directemente du prince; le prefet ne peut intercepter ses rapports, et c』est au prince, non pas au prefets, qu’on fait appel des decisions judicaires du vicaire,」 p. 354.
- ^ Codex Theodosianus 6, 28 4 (387 = Codex Justinianus 12, 21, 1); Sinnigen, William G. 'Three Administrative Changes attributed to Constantius II', American Journal of Philology, 83, 1962, pp. 369-383
- ^ CTh. 6, 27, 1 (379); 4 (387) = CJ 12, 21 1; 6 (399); 8 (435) =CJ 12, 21, 4
- ^ Kelly pp. 188-191; Jones, p. 128; Sinnigen, 369-383
- ^ Franks, p. 991
- ^ Kelly, Ruling the Later Empire, 2004, pp. 190, 204-212 ISBN 0-674-01564-9
- ^ Jones, p. 409
- ^ A.H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284-602, 1964, pp. 404, 408-410, 280-283
- ^ Jones, p. 414; Delmaire, pp. 703-714; Errington, pp. 261-265; Franks, pp. 992-993; Wiewiorowski, pp. 297, 299
- ^ Wiewiorowski, p. 299
- ^ Jones, p. 461
- ^ Jones. p. 461
- ^ Jones, LRE pp. 280-283; Delmaire, Introduction IX-XI, pp. 710-712; Wiewiorowski, pp. 293, 297; Franks p. 993
- ^ Jones, p. 292
- ^ Ch. Daremberg & Edm. Saglio, Dictionnaire des Antiquités grecques et romaines, vol. 2, ed. Hachette, Paris, 1877-1919, p. 226, online.
- ^ Daremberg, p. 226
- ^ Cicero § 1. Marcus Tullius Cicero. Encyclopædia Britannica 6 (第11版). London: Cambridge University Press: 354. 1911. Chisholm, Hugh (編).
- ^ Cicero § 1. Marcus Tullius Cicero. Encyclopædia Britannica 6 (第11版). London: Cambridge University Press: 354. 1911. Chisholm, Hugh (編).
- ^ Daremberg et al. (vol. 2), p. 226
- ^ CAH, p. 161
- ^ Daremberg