社会民主主义
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社会民主主义(英语:Social democracy)是一种社会主义思想,支持通过在自由民主体制和资本主义经济体系下,通过经济干预和社会干预的手段促进社会正义的意识形态。社会民主主义支持代议制和参与民主制。社会民主主义主张实行收入再分配,通过调控手段使经济发展符合大众共同利益。建设福利国家亦是社会民主主义的目标之一。[1][2][3]社会民主主义希望使资本主义社会能更加民主、公正和团结。20世纪后半叶,西欧和北欧国家,尤其是实行北欧模式的北欧国家,都深受社会民主主义的影响。[4][5]
社会民主主义起源于一种温和的社会主义意识形态。后者主张在已有政治框架下,通过和平的方式对资本主义进行改良,实现从资本主义到社会主义的和平过渡,而非如革命社会主义那样通过暴力革命实现。[6]二战结束后,西欧的社会民主主义党派均表示不接受当时苏联斯大林主义的政治经济体制。一些党派称目标是采用与苏联不同的方法过渡到社会主义,而另一些党派则表示他们的目标是建立一个资本主义和社会主义的混合体系。[7]在这一时期,社会民主主义党派执政时通常会采用混合经济体制,在经济主体为私有制的前提下,将部分产业置于国家的控制下。这种经济体制与凯恩斯主义的主张有类似之处。在21世纪,社会民主主义政党主张通过国家干预和建设福利国家的主张。这样的经济体制已和社会主义经济体制有本质上的不同。社会民主主义政党已经接受要素市场、私有制与雇佣劳动,抛弃了社会主义改变资本主义体制的目标。[4][8][9][10]
今日,社会民主主义主要的议题包括消除社会不平等、贫困,以及特权阶级对他人的压迫[11]。同时,社会民主主义者还主张建立面向全民的公共服务体系,比如老人照护、儿童保育、义务教育、全民医保、劳工保障等体系[12]。社会民主主义亦与工人运动和工会有着紧密联系。社会民主主义者支持工人的谈判权,希望能将政治上的民主决策权延伸到经济中,促进雇工与其他经济利益相关者的共同决策[13]。
社会民主主义的政党
许多民主国家都有支持社会民主主义的政党,如:英国工党、爱尔兰工党、马来西亚民主行动党、荷兰工党、法国社会党、德国社会民主党,意大利民主党、加拿大新民主党、澳大利亚工党、纽西兰工党、瑞典社会民主工人党、韩国正义党、芬兰社会民主党、丹麦社会民主党和挪威工党等政党。这些政党一直以来以民主的方式不间断的参与选举,致力于建设一个更加相对公平、正义、平等的社会和推行福利政策。大多数欧洲的社会民主主义政党都是欧洲社会党的成员。
20世纪后期,大多数社会民主主义者不再认为资本主义式的市场经济与他们的目标有冲突。一方面,从严格意义上讲社会民主主义并不是社会主义的一种形式[14];但另一方面,在社会党国际的《法兰克福宣言》里明确言明其为社会主义[15],它的宣言守则也言明这点[16],大多数社会民主主义者接受了中间派的第三条道路,支持解除政府对经济的管制,并且强调以机会均等作为社会正义的基准点。现代社会民主主义也包括了女权主义、反对种族歧视,反对歧视LGBT族群、支持多元文化政策等观点。现代社会民主主义能否被称为社会主义仍然有极大争议,但许多社会民主主义者已经不再自认为是社会主义者了。
“民主社会主义”与“社会民主主义”
民主社会主义与社会民主主义存在一定区别。前者寻求建立一个实行社会主义经济的社会;而后者则是将资本主义和社会主义进行了融合。许多自称“社会民主主义”的政党都与那些民主社会主义政党划清了界线,自然的两者仍有一些重叠的特色,一些民主社会主义者所公开承认与社会民主主义仍有相同的部分,和那些为了使他们更符合社会主义而产生的差异。
在一般情况下,社会民主主义的立场是处于资本主义与社会主义的中间,而民主社会主义则拥护完全的社会主义,并且希望藉著民主手段废除资本主义[17]。
一般而言,对于民主社会主义与社会民主主义的差异有两种看法:第一种看法认为民主社会主义不过是更左翼的社会民主主义,而非另一种分支,因为许多社会民主主义者仍然承认他们继承马克思主义[18],而且社会民主主义者讨论政治时的用词也和正统的马克思主义者没有差异。第二种看法则认为尽管民主社会主义与社会民主主义都有同样的主张(将资本主义人性化),但对于民主社会主义而言这些主张只是一个在迈向全然的社会主义社会之前所的经历的过程而已,而社会民主主义则则已经抛弃了其建立全然社会主义社会的目标,同时偏向了中立派的立场,因而他们已经没有理由再自称为社会主义了。
历史
许多政党在19世纪的下半叶开始自称为社会民主主义,例如英国的社会民主联盟,和俄国的俄国社会民主工党。这些很多都是革命路线的社会主义或马克思主义团体,他们不只希望推行社会主义,也希望在不民主的国家里推行民主。
现代的社会民主主义在20世纪初产生了分裂,对于卡尔·马克思的学说有两种不同的看法。当时许多有关的运动,包括和平主义、无政府主义和工团主义都在同时期诞生(通常是从社会主义里衍生出来的,不过也有独立产生的学说),而当时第二国际内的无政府主义者和拉萨尔主义者等对马克思主义不抱好感。社会民主主义则由于大多数支持者也为社会主义者,而没有排斥马克思主义(而且还主张拥护之),不过他们还是经由几种手段对马克思主义予以“改良”,并且缓和他们对于资本主义的批评,他们主张社会主义应该经由“改革”而非“革命”来达成。但这些观点被主张革命路线的社会主义者强烈反对,并主张任何试图改革资本主义的举动都注定会失败,因为改革者将会逐渐腐化,最后自己也变成了资本主义。
尽管理论上的差异,改革路线和革命路线的社会主义者仍然维持统一直到第一次世界大战爆发,战争成了他们彻底决裂的导火线。改革路线的社会主义者各自支持他们自己的国家进行战争,而革命路线的社会主义者则认为这是对劳动阶级的彻底背叛(因为通常被派去前线送死的士兵都来自社会底层,这样一来他们就背叛了“全世界的劳工应该联合起来推翻资本主义”的原则)。社会主义政党里都爆发了激烈争论,例如在德国社会民主党里改革路线的爱德华·伯恩施坦与革命路线的罗莎·卢森堡之间发生的争论。在1917年俄国革命后,世界上大多数的社会主义政党都分裂了。改革路线的社会主义者保持“社会民主主义”的称呼,而革命路线的社会主义者则开始自称为“共产主义”,并且很快开始了现代的“共产主义”运动。(参见第三国际)自从1920年代开始,社会民主主义与共产主义间在学说上的差异便不断扩大。
在社会民主主义与共产主义分裂之后,社会民主主义内部又发生了一次分裂。一些人仍然认为必须废止资本主义(不透过革命手段,而透过民主议会的手段),而其他人则认为资本主义可以被保留,只需要做出一些调整和改进,例如将主要产业国有化、达成一些社会政策(例如公共教育、普遍的全民保健系统等等)以及(部分)经由福利国家政策和累进税率重新分配财富。到了后来,绝大多数的社会民主主义政党都采取了后者的立场,并且在二战后,都抛弃了要废止资本主义的理念。例如在1959年,德国社会民主党便采纳了哥德斯堡纲领,抛弃了阶级斗争和部分马克思主义的概念。
自从1980年代后期以来,冷战结束后,大多数的中间偏左社会民主主义政党都采纳了第三种道路。现代的社会民主主义政党通常主张混合经济,以资本主义为主体,但由政府提供一些社会保障服务。许多社会民主主义政党不再强调他们长久以来主张通过经济干预而实现社会正义,改而关心人权和环保议题。也因为如此,他们面对世界各地更进步的绿党越来越大的挑战,绿党视环保和社会平等为和平的基础,并且强调改革货币供应量和安全贸易以确保生态的健全。
在瑞典,绿党、社会民主党组成了红绿联盟,而中间偏右的自由保守主义政党温和党则与中间派的自由主义政党自由党和中间党结盟。法国、德国、芬兰、丹麦、冰岛、挪威也出现了类似的现象。
一些社会民主主义所推广的政策在当地国家长久的实施,并在一定意义上也被其他主流的政党所支持,这样的政策包括了累进税和由政府所出资的保健系统,或推行免费的大学教育等等。其他的政策有时候则会被否决,有时甚至是由社会民主主义政党执政的政府所推翻的。同时社会民主主义政党也抛弃了国有化的概念,反而部份的、甚至是彻底的民营化各种产业。这些改变可以从澳大利亚的鲍勃·霍克和保罗·基廷政府(1983-1996)、英国的托尼·布莱尔和戈登·布朗政府(1997-2010)、德国的格哈特·施罗德政府(1998-2005)、瑞典的戈兰·佩尔松政府(1996-2006)等人看出。
一般而言,这些政策的逆转往往是由政党的领导者所支持的,但基层的党员和支持者大多都不支持这些政策。许多人甚至宣称社会民主主义政党的领导阶层已经腐化了,因为他们在实际上已经抛弃了社会民主主义的理念。而这些被指称腐化的社会主义者则反击,他们的新政策只是为了使社会民主主义更适用于现代的世界。
当讨论起社会民主主义近年来的改变时,或许必须记得一件事,通常被人们称为'传统的'社会民主主义现在则被认为只有在适当的国际气候下-也就是在战后所举行的布列敦森林协定所规定的固定汇率制度下才有可能实现,而当这个制度瓦解之后,便不可能再重建之了。因为美国政府未遵守承诺,发行大量美元让美元长期逐渐贬值,使经济生产力的提升被抵销,人们得赚更多钱才能应付日常开销。
一些社会民主主义政党是自由贸易的支持者,因为认知到限制国际间的贸易可能造成价格的提升和收入的减少,而伤害了贫穷人口,反而右倾的自由主义和保守主义政党则反对自由贸易及支持保护主义的商业管制。例如英国工党在1924年的首次执政,便是因为他们的对手英国保守党主张贸易保护主义而在1923年的选举中失利。
现代社会民主主义政党的普遍主张
通常,现代的社会民主主义者支持:
- 经由一套管理体制管理民营企业以确保劳工、消费者和中小企业的利益。
- 社会市场经济超越自由市场,或者,在某些情况和范围下,进行计画经济。
- 拥护公平贸易超越自由贸易。
- 广泛的社会福利体制(虽然大多没有民主社会主义和其他社会主义团体所主张的广泛程度),尤其要缓和贫穷人口,并且为人民投保以避免人民受疾病或失业的影响而失去收入。
- 由政府持有或者由政府补助,为国民提供教育、医疗系统、孩童照顾等等的服务。
- 从中等至偏高比率的税率,以支援政府的支出,并实施累进税制度。
- 一套规范产业的制度(法定的最低工资,确保工作环境,保护劳工免受资方随意的解雇,支持集体谈判权)。
- 环境保护的法规(但没有绿党主张的那样广泛,反对对企业实施过多管制)。
- 支持移民和多元文化政策。
- 现世主义和开放社会政策,虽然在这方面程度不尽相同,但皆支持LGBT权利、性别平等和女性自主生育权,部分容许供消遣用的药物如大麻等,但或会因为政治上的考量而反对。
- 支持具国际主义色彩的外交政策,以保护及推广人权,并支持有效的多边主义及国际合作。
对社会民主主义的批评
大多数对社会民主主义的批评来自偏右翼的自由主义者。偏右的自由主义者通常主张社会民主主义的自由主义限制个人权利,尤其是在经济上的自由,个人选择的自由往往被巨大的制度所盖过,也就是那些国营的学校、医疗系统、孩童照顾和其他服务。尤其是社会民主主义的政策只会让社会趋于平庸,而资本主义国家则鼓励人们竞争迈向成功。社会民主主义者则通常反驳,藉著提高绝大多数人的生活水平并且消除极端贫穷的威胁,个人的权利反而得以提升。另一种从左翼里发出的反驳更宣称藉著限制一些经济的权利,对小型企业而言能让市场更为公平和自由,也因此能提升更多人的自由和财富,也因此没有人会变的太有钱。而许多经济上的权利也能消除白领阶层犯罪。这些是一部分社会民主主义者的反驳。
经济保守主义和古典自由主义者则主张社会民主主义的政策妨害了市场机制,鼓励大量的预算赤字和限制企业自由将会伤害经济的发展。对此社会民主主义者则会反驳近年来右翼的保守派政府同样制造了大量的预算赤字,尤其是美国在雷根和布希的任期时、以及英国在柴契尔的任期时的预算赤字。古典自由主义者并且批评道,社会民主主义对于资本主义的批评往往是针对由国家所控制的社团主义体制,那其实是偏向法西斯主义而不是真正的自由市场经济。
现代自由主义者则批评社会民主主义为了其理想的目标,而限制了个人在政治和法律上的权利。举例而言,英国于2004年5月发生的未经审判便关押恐怖份子嫌疑犯的事件中,主张人应有权利接受公平审判的英国自由民主党大力批评执政的工党政府,而工党政府则辩护他们是为了社会安全才压缩了人权。不过这个例子是假设英国工党仍然奉行著社会民主主义,但实际上,工党及自民党早已脱离了社会民主主义的范畴。而且类似的反恐怖份子法条也曾于2006年在澳大利亚由澳大利亚自由党所推行。
社会民主主义也受到大量来自左派的批评,民主社会主义和革命路线的社会主义者批评社会民主主义太过依赖资本主义系统,使得他们变的与现代自由主义没有两样。许多社会民主主义者明确的放弃了“社会主义”的称呼以及建立社会主义社会的目标,并且愿意与资本主义体制合作而不是去推翻之。因此许多左翼人士批评现代的中间偏左社会民主主义政党背叛了他们的原则,逐渐腐化并和生意人的游说团及其他利益集团同流合污。左派人士指出许多社会民主主义的代表性人物,例如英国的托尼·布莱尔及戈登·布朗政府(1997-2010)、瑞典的戈兰·佩尔松(1996-2006)和德国的格哈特·施罗德(1998-2005),他们虽称走第三条道路的路线,惟政策皆加入新自由主义的元素,例如向大企业施行减税、减少社会福利、进行私有化、减少产业上的规定,并导致福利国家政策大幅倒退。
著名的社会民主主义者列表
参考文献
- ^ Heywood 2012,第128页: "Social democracy is an ideological stance that supports a broad balance between market capitalism, on the one hand, and state intervention, on the other hand. Being based on a compromise between the market and the state, social democracy lacks a systematic underlying theory and is, arguably, inherently vague. It is nevertheless associated with the following views: (1) capitalism is the only reliable means of generating wealth, but it is a morally defective means of distributing wealth because of its tendency towards poverty and inequality; (2) the defects of the capitalist system can be rectified through economic and social intervention, the state being the custodian of the public interest […]"
- ^ Miller 1998,第827页: "The idea of social democracy is now used to describe a society the economy of which is predominantly capitalist, but where the state acts to regulate the economy in the general interest, provides welfare services outside of it and attempts to alter the distribution of income and wealth in the name of social justice."
- ^ Badie, Berg-Schlosser & Morlino 2011,第2423页: "Social democracy refers to a political tendency resting on three fundamental features: (1) democracy (e.g., equal rights to vote and form parties), (2) an economy partly regulated by the state (e.g., through Keynesianism), and (3) a welfare state offering social support to those in need (e.g., equal rights to education, health service, employment and pensions)."
- ^ 4.0 4.1 Weisskopf 1992,第10页: "Thus social democrats do not try to do away with either the market or private property ownership; instead, they attempt to create conditions in which the operation of a capitalist market economy will lead to more egalitarian outcomes and encourage more democratic and more solidaristic practices than would a more conventional capitalist system."
- ^ Gombert et al. 2009,第8页; Sejersted 2011.
- ^ Social democracy. Encyclopædia Britannica. [10 August 2015]. (原始内容存档于2018-04-08).
- ^ Adams 1993,第102-103页: "The emergence of social democracy was partly a result of the Cold War. People argued that if the Stalinist Soviet empire, where the state controlled everything, showed socialism in action, then socialism was not worth having. [...] The consensus policies of a mixed and managed economy and the welfare state, developed by the post-war Labour government, seemed in themselves to provide a basis for a viable socialism that would combine prosperity and freedom with social justice and the possibility of a full life for everyone. They could be seen as a compromise between socialism and capitalism."
- ^ Miller 1998,第827页: "In the second, mainly post-war, phase, social democrats came to believe that their ideals and values could be achieved by reforming capitalism rather than abolishing it. They favored a mixed economy in which most industries would be privately owned, with only a small number of utilities and other essential services in public ownership."
- ^ Jones 2001,第1410页: "In addition, particularly since World War II, distinctions have sometimes been made between social democrats and socialists on the basis that the former have accepted the permanence of the mixed economy and have abandoned the idea of replacing the capitalist system with a qualitatively different socialist society."
- ^ Heywood 2012,第125–128页: "As an ideological stance, social democracy took shape around the mid-twentieth century, resulting from the tendency among western socialist parties not only to adopt parliamentary strategies, but also to revise their socialist goals. In particular, they abandoned the goal of abolishing capitalism and sought instead to reform or ‘humanize’ it. Social democracy therefore came to stand for a broad balance between the market economy, on the one hand, and state intervention, on the other."
- ^ Hoefer 2013,第29页.
- ^ Meyer & Hinchman 2007,第137页.
- ^ Meyer & Hinchman 2007,第91页; Upchurch, Taylor & Mathers 2009,第51页.
- ^ 现代资本主义和欧洲社会民主主义-中国社会科学在线. [2014-12-12]. (原始内容存档于2015-05-06).
- ^ 社会党国际-法兰克福宣言 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆):"3. Socialism aims to liberate the peoples from dependence on a minority which owns or controls the means of production. It aims to put economic power in the hands of the people as a whole, and to create a community in which free men work together as equals."
- ^ 社会党国际-原则宣言 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆):"1. The idea of Socialism has caught the imagination of people across the world, promoted successful political movements, decisively improved the lives of working men and women, and contributed to shaping the 20th century."
- ^ Democratic Socialism Works & People Are Happy About It!, page 1. [2014-12-12]. (原始内容存档于2014-12-13).
- ^ 社会党国际-法兰克福宣言 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆):"11.Socialism is an international movement which does not demand a rigid uniformity of approach. Whether Socialists build their faith on Marxist or other methods of analysing society, whether they are inspired by religious or humanitarian principles, they all strive for the same goal—a system of social justice, better living, freedom and world peace."
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扩展阅读
- Brandal, Nik; Bratberg, Øivind; Thorsen, Dag Einar. The Nordic Model of Social Democracy. Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan. 2013. ISBN 978-1-137-01326-2.
- Cronin, James E.; Ross, George W.; Shoch, James (编). What's Left of the Left: Democrats and Social Democrats in Challenging Times. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. 2011. ISBN 978-0-8223-5079-8.
- Evans, Bryan; Schmidt, Ingo (编). Social Democracy After the Cold War. Edmonton, Alberta: Athabasca University Press. 2012. ISBN 978-1-926836-87-4.
- Kenworthy, Lane. Social Democratic America. New York: Oxford University Press. 2014. ISBN 978-0-19-932251-0.
- Lavelle, Ashley. The Death of Social Democracy: Political Consequences in the 21st Century. Aldershot, England: Ashgate. 2008. ISBN 978-0-7546-7014-8.
- Martell, Luke. Conflicts in Cosmopolitanism and the Global Left. London: Policy Network. 2011 [3 August 2016]. (原始内容存档于2018-02-04).
- Sachs, Jeffrey D. The Social Welfare State, beyond Ideology. Scientific American. Vol. 295 no. 5 (New York). 2006: 42 [2 August 2016]. ISSN 0036-8733. (原始内容存档于12 October 2007).
- Thorsen, Dag Einar; Brandal, Nik; Bratberg, Øivind. Utopia Sustained: The Nordic Model of Social Democracy. London: Fabian Society. 2013 [2 August 2016]. (原始内容存档于2018-02-05).
外部链接
- http://www.socialistinternational.org/ (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- Socialdemocrat.org (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆).
- Papers on the Future of Social Democracy in Canada
- http://www.xun6.com/file/d924dfab3/.html[ 《社会民主主义导论》 -(德)托马斯·迈尔(简体中文)] (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)