蚊
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蚊科(学名:Culicidae)是昆虫纲双翅目之下的一个科。该科生物通常被称为蚊或蚊子,是一种具有刺吸式口器的纤小飞虫。绝大多数蚊科的雄蚊以植物汁液为食,雌蚊则外寄生于其他生物表面,使用刺吸式口器刺穿宿主的皮肤以吸取血液。其宿主成千上万,主要为脊椎动物,如哺乳动物、鸟类、爬行动物、两栖动物、鱼类等。有些种类的蚊子还会寄生于节肢动物。吸食血液对宿主一般不会有太大影响,但在吸食过程中,蚊子的唾液会使宿主出现皮疹等症状。蚊子是许多种疾病的传播媒介,蚊子会以吸食血液的方式,将疾病从一个宿主体内传播到另一个宿主体内,登革热、疟疾、黄热病、寨卡病毒、丝虫病、日本脑炎、西尼罗河病毒、基孔肯雅热等虫媒病毒可以通过这种方式快速传播,因此,蚊子被蚊虫控制协会(英文:Mosquito Control Association)评为世界上最危险的动物之一。目前除南极洲外,各大洲皆有蚊子的广泛分布。[2][3][4]
蚊科 | |
---|---|
埃及斑蚊(Aedes aegypti,吸血蚊) | |
巨蚊(Toxorhynchites rutilus,非吸血蚊) | |
科学分类 | |
界: | 动物界 Animalia |
门: | 节肢动物门 Arthropoda |
纲: | 昆虫纲 Insecta |
目: | 双翅目 Diptera |
亚目: | 长角亚目 Nematocera |
下目: | 蚊下目 Culicomorpha |
总科: | 蚊总科 Culicoidea |
科: | 蚊科 Culicidae Meigen, 1818 |
亚科 | |
身体构造
跟一般的昆虫一样,身体分为头、胸、腹三个部分。身体和脚皆细长。大小随种类不同,不过大部分小于15mm。体重约为2-2.5mg。只有一对翅膀(双翅目的特征),另一对退化为平衡杆。飞行速度约为每小时1.5到2.5公里,单次飞行可持续4分半钟,一般蚊子飞行时每秒翅膀振动594次左右;这样的振动,使我们在蚊子飞行时会听到“嗡嗡”的声音。口器为刺吸式,特化成细长的喙,大部分种类雌蚊的口器都适合刺吸血液。蚊体表覆盖形状及颜色不同的鳞片,使蚊体呈不同的颜色。这是鉴别蚊类的重要依据之一。翅脉上也有鳞片,翅后缘有缘鳞。多为夜行性动物。
生活
生活史
蚊科均为完全变态,包括四个发育时期:卵、幼虫、蛹及成虫。前三个时期的长短与种类及温度有关。举例来说,媒斑蚊(Culex tarsalis,常见于美国),在20℃下须14天来完成前三时期的发育。但在25℃上,只需要10天就可以发育完成。完成前三时期的发育所需的时间通常介于4天至一个月之间。蚊子的卵依种类的不同可能产在水面、水边或水中三种不同的位置,水面上的如疟蚊和家蚊,水边的如斑蚊。疟蚊和家蚊约在二天内孵化,而斑蚊则在三至五天会孵化。
蚊科昆虫的幼虫又称为
有一些种类的蚊子幼虫(例如瓶草蚊属),住在凤梨科植物中的积水里。有些甚至居住在猪笼草等捕虫植物之中。Deinocerites属的蚊子则居住在海边的小洞中。大部分不居住在热带的品种,都以卵的形态度过冬天。但也有少部分的种类以成虫或孑孓的型态来越冬,例如家蚊属的一些种类,即以雌成虫的型态来越冬。实验室发现,蚊子在0度以上能存活的时间非常长,大概能存活到三到五个月。[5]
摄食
大部分蚊科的雌蚊均有吸血习性,主要是为了交配后产卵(并非靠吸食血液维生),所以它们的口器特化为细长的喙,以便刺穿动物的皮肤。跟其他吸血昆虫的针状(像注射针筒)口器不同,雌蚊口器上布满了锯齿状的突出。和注射针头平滑的表面相比,锯齿状的口器和皮肤组织接触的面积较小,这减少了对于神经的刺激,所以产生的疼痛感大大降低。蚊子吸血时,会反复的穿刺皮肤,藉这个动作来寻找最适合的穿刺位置(以微血管密度决定)。接著,将口针刺入皮肤并注射含有抗凝血化合物的唾液,有时唾液含有病原体并可能感染寄主。口针可直接刺入微血管,或利用口器的游移划破微血管,形成血池后再吸血。
雌蚊借由特殊的感应器来寻找它们的猎物。雌蚊对二氧化碳、热及汗水非常敏感,所以它们能在一定的距离内寻找恒温动物的哺乳类和鸟叮咬。经常有人认为血型、肥胖、性别甚至血糖会影响被叮咬的风险,但是在世界范围内都没有令人信服的统计数据。
雌蚊需要摄取蛋白质以获得足够的营养来产卵,而从一般雄蚊的正常饮食(花蜜、果汁)中无法获得足量的蛋白质,因此雌蚊才会吸血。而也有少数蚊科雌雄皆不吸血,如巨蚊属的雌蚊口器构造并不适合吸血,成虫以花蜜为主食,幼虫则以其他蚊子(包含同类)的幼虫为食。
演化
据信,在2.17亿年前的三叠纪就已经演化出蚊子的始祖[6]。而最早的化石证据则发现于约1.3亿年前白垩纪早期的琥珀中[7]。最初演化出蚊子的区域是在现今的南美洲,接著逐渐往北迁徙到劳亚古陆,接著再度往南迁徙到热带地区。蚊子的祖先大约有现存种类的三倍大,与幽蚊科(Chaoboridae)有密切的关系。
蚊与健康
在世界中大部分的地区,蚊是严重的公共卫生问题。蚊子传播的疾病可达80多种[8]。估计每年约有7亿人被蚊子传染各种疾病,且每十七人中,就有1人死于被蚊子传染的各种疾病。[9]蚊子每年杀死70万人[10][11][12]。尤其是在热带地区,多种传染病常借由蚊子传染给人类。但在大多数温带国家,例如美国、英国、纽西兰、日本,被蚊子咬通常只会发痒,而不至于被传染疾病。[1]
传染疾病的机制
雌蚊在吸血时,若叮咬的对象是病人,则病原可能借由这个动作进入蚊子体内,并藉著蚊子的叮咬传播。但不是每一种蚊子都可以传播每一种病毒。只有特定种类的蚊子(称为病媒蚊),可以传播特定种类的病毒。若病毒被非病媒蚊的蚊子吸取,则会在蚊子的消化系统中被酵素破坏,失去传染力。[13]由于只有雌蚊会吸血,所以只有雌蚊会传染疾病。
疟蚊与疟疾
蚊科之下的一个属,疟蚊属(Anopheles),是单细胞原生生物界疟原虫的中介寄主;其雌蚊吸血姿态呈倾斜倒立状,头部非常靠近皮肤,非常好辨认。全世界疟蚊属的成员有400种,其中85种能传播疟疾。疟原虫造成的疟疾是全球人类主要的死因之一,尤其是五岁以下的孩童,更容易受到疟疾的感染而死亡。疟疾每年约造成3百万人死亡,[14]会传染疟疾的疟蚊分布在中南美洲、非洲、大洋洲和中亚,尤以非洲最为严重。在非洲,平均每30秒就有一个儿童死于疟疾。[15]
其他疾病
大部分种类的蚊子都能够传染丝虫病(由线虫导致)。这种疾病会导致橡皮肿(gumma)使外生殖器及大腿异常肿大。在全球,约有120万人感染丝虫病。[2] 大部分品种的蚊子会传染病毒性的疾病,包括黄热病、登革热、日本脑炎、圣路易脑炎、多发性关节炎、裂谷热(Rift Valley fever)、契昆根亚热及西尼罗河热。
一般情况下,爱滋病不会借由蚊子叮咬而传染。
叮咬与免疫反应
蚊子使用口针(stylets),六根针状、类似抽血用针的构造来刺进人类的皮肤,吸取血液摄食。当蚊子叮咬人类时,会从口器输出唾液。其唾液含有蚁酸、抗凝血化合物及目前成分不明的蛋白质(目前已知至少含15种),其中酸性物质是用来溶解皮肤表层的角质层;抗凝血化合物则是避免在蚊子吸食血液时,血液突然凝固。第一次被咬时,身体不会有任何特殊反应。但从第二次开始,人体免疫系统的肥大细胞会释放出组织胺,以便对抗蚊子所带来的外来物质,造成皮肤发痒和红肿。这种刺激性感觉,乃是被叮咬者对蚊子唾液的一种过敏反应。
分类
本科包括了约3,200种,40属[16]。又分成:疟蚊亚科(Anophelinae)及家蚊亚科(Culicinae,包括了80%以上的种类)两个亚科;旧分类法原有的巨蚊亚科(Toxorhynchitinae)现被归为家蚊亚科的一个族,即巨蚊族(Toxorhynchitini)。以下仅列出较重要的数个属。
- Abraedes Zavortink, 1970
- Acalleomyia Leicester, 1908
- Acallyntrum Stone, 1948
- Acartomyia Theobald, 1903
- Aedeomyia Theobald, 1901
- 斑蚊属 Aedes Meigen, 1818,伊蚊
- Aedimorphus Theobald, 1903
- Aedinus Lutz, 1905
- Aetheapnomyia Harbuch & Greenwalt, 2012
- Afroculex Danilov, 1989
- Afrorhynchus Ribeiro, 1991
- Aioretomyia Leicester, 1908
- Alanstonea Mattingly, 1960
- Albuginosus Reinert, 1987
- Aldrichinella Theobald, 1910
- Allimanta Casal & Garcia, 1968
- Andersonia Strickland, 1911
- Aniella Enderlein, 1923
- Anisocheleomyia Theobald, 1905
- Ankylorhynchus Lutz, 1904
- 疟蚊属 Anopheles Meigen, 1818,(按蚊)
- Apicomyia Shannon, 1922
- Aporoculex Theobald, 1907
- Archaeoculicus 丛蚊属
- Armigeres Theobald, 1901,阿蚊
- Arribalzagia Theobald, 1903
- Arthuromyia Ayroza Galvão, 1941
- Asioculicus Hong, 1976
- Austromansonia Belkin, 1968
- Austrotheobaldia Dobrotworsky, 1954
- Ayurakitia Thurman, 1954
- Aztecaedes Zavortink, 1972
- Bancroftia Lutz, 1904
- Banksinella Theobald, 1907
- Barraudius Edwards, 1921
- Barraudius Linnaeus, 1758
- Bathosomyia Theobald, 1909
- Belkinius Reinert, 1982
- Belkinomyia Adames & Galindo, 1973
- Bifidistylus Reinert, Harbach & Kitching, 2009
- Binotia Blanchard, 1904
- Bironella Theobald, 1905
- Bolbodeomyia Theobald, 1910
- Borichinda Rattanarithikul & Harbach, 2007
- Bothaella Reinert, 1973
- Boycia Newstead, 1907
- Brachiosoma Theobald, 1901
- Brevirhynchus Theobald, 1908
- Burmaculex Borkent & Grimaldi, 2004
- Cacomyia Coquillett, 1906
- Caenocephalus Taylor, 1914
- Caenomyiella Harbach & Peyton, 1990
- Calladimyia Dyar, 1919
- Carrollia Lutz, 1905
- Catageiomyia Theobald, 1904
- Catatassomyia Dyar & Shannon, 1925
- Cellia Theobald, 1902
- Chaetocruiomyia Theobald, 1910
- Chaetomyia Leicester, 1908
- Chagasia Cruz, 1906
- Chilomyia Shannon, 1922
- Christya Theobald, 1903
- Chrysoconops Goeldi, 1905
- Cleobonnea Dyar, 1919
- Collessius Reinert, Harbach & Kitching, 2006
- Colonemyia Leicester, 1908
- Conchyliastes Howard, 1901
- Conopomyia Leicester, 1908
- Conopostegus Dyar, 1925
- 苛蚊属 Coquillettidia Dyar, 1905(轲蚊)
- Coquillettidia Edwards, 1923
- 家蚊属 Culex Linnaeus, 1758(库蚊)
- Culicada Felt, 1904
- Culicella Felt, 1904
- Culicelsa Felt, 1904
- Culiselsa Felt, 1904
- 绒蚊属 Culiseta Felt, 1904(脉毛蚊)
- Cyathomyia Meijere, 1910
- Cycloleppteron Theobald, 1901
- Dahliana Reinert, Harbach & Kitching, 2007
- Danielsia Theobald, 1904
- Dasymyia Leicester, 1908
- Decamyia Dyar, 1919
- Deinocerites Theobald, 1901
- Desvoidya Blanchard, 1901
- Diceromyia Felt, 1918
- Diceromyia Theobald, 1911
- Dinanamesus Dyar & Knab, 1909
- Dinomimetes Knab, 1907
- Diphalangarpe Dyar, 1919
- Dixapuella Dyar & Shannon, 1924
- Dixomyia Taylor, 1914
- Dobrotworskyius Reinert, Harbach & Kitching, 2006
- Downsiomyia Vargas, 1950
- Dunnius Edwards, 1930
- Duttonia Newstead, 1907
- Dyarina Bonne-Wepster & Bonne, 1921
- Ecculex Felt, 1904
- Ekrinomyia Leicester, 1908
- Elpeytonius Reinert, Harbach & Kitching, 2009
- Eoaedes Harbuch & Greenwalt, 2012
- Eretmapodites Theobald, 1901
- Etorleptiomyia Theobald, 1904
- Eubonnea Dyar, 1919
- Eumelanomyia Theobald, 1909
- Exallomyia Harbach & Peyton, 1991
- Feltidia Dyar, 1905
- Feltinella Theobald, 1907
- 费蚊属 Ficalbia Theobald, 1903
- Finlaya Theobald, 1903
- Fredwardsius Reinert, 2000
- Galindomyia Stone & Barreto, 1969
- Geitonomyia Leicester, 1908
- Georgecraigius Reinert, Harbach & Kitching, 2006
- Gilesia Theobald, 1903
- Gilesius Reinert, Harbach & Kitching, 2006
- Gnophodeomyia Theobald, 1905
- Grabhamia Theobald, 1903
- Grassia Theobald, 1902
- Gualteria Lutz, 1904
- Gymnometopa Coquillett, 1905
- Haemagogus Williston, 1896
- Halaedes Belkin, 1962
- Harbachius Reinert, 1999
- Heizmannia Ludlow, 1905
- Heliconiamyia Dyar, 1919
- Heptaphlebomyia Theobald, 1903
- Heteronycha Lynch Arribálzaga, 1891
- Himalaius Reinert, Harbach & Kitching, 2006
- Hispidimyia Theobald, 1910
- 霍蚊属 Hodgesia Theobald, 1904
- Hopkinsius Reinert, Harbach & Kitching, 2008
- Howardia Theobald, 1902
- Howardina Theobald, 1903
- Huaedes Huang, 1968
- Hulecoeteomyia Theobald, 1904
- Hyloconops Lutz, 1904
- Hystatomyia Dyar, 1919
- Indusius Barraud, 1934
- Insulalutzia Tanaka, 2003
- Isoaedes Reinert, 1979
- Isostomyia Coquillett, 1906
- Janthinosoma Lynch Arribálzaga, 1891
- Jarnellius Reinert, Harbach & Kitching, 2006
- Jihlienius Reinert, Harbach & Kitching, 2006
- Joblotia Blanchard, 1901
- Johnbelkinia Zavortink, 1979
- Kenknightia Reinert, 1990
- Kerteszia Theobald, 1905
- Kimia Vu Duc Huong & Harbach, 2007
- Kingia Theobald, 1910
- Kitzmilleria Danilov, 1989
- Kompia Aitken, 1941
- Kummyia Vargas, 1950
- Lasioconops Theobald, 1903
- Leicesteria Theobald, 1904
- Leicesteriomyia Brunetti, 1912
- Leipidotomyia
- Lemmamyia Dyar, 1919
- Lepiothauma Enderlein, 1923
- Leptosomatomyia Theobald, 1905
- Leslieomyia Christophers, 1911
- Lesticocampa Dyar & Knab, 1906
- Levua Stone & Bohart, 1944
- Libanoculex
- Libanoculex intermedius Azar, Nel, Huang & Engel, 2023[17]
- Limatus Theobald, 1901
- Lophoceraomyia Theobald, 1905
- Lophoscelomyia Theobald, 1904
- Lorrainea Belkin, 1962
- Ludlowia Theobald, 1907
- Luius Reinert, Harbach & Kitching, 2008
- Lutzia Theobald, 1903
- Luzonus Stone & Bohart, 1944
- Lynchiella Lahille, 1904
- Macleaya Theobald, 1903
- Maillotia Theobald, 1907
- 芋蚊属 Malaya Leicester, 1908(钩蚊)
- Manguinhosia Cruz, 1908
- 沼蚊属 Mansonia Blanchard, 1902(曼蚊)
- Mansonioides Theobald, 1907
- Maorigoeldia Edwards, 1930
- Mattinglyia Lien, 1968
- Megaculex Theobald, 1907
- Melanoconion Theobald, 1903
- Menolepis Lutz, 1908
- Metalutzia Tanaka, 2003
- Miamyia Dyar, 1919
- Micraedes Coquillett, 1905
- Microculex Theobald, 1907
- Mimeteculex Theobald, 1908
- Mimeteomyia Theobald, 1910
- Mimetomyia
- Mimomyia Theobald, 1903
- Missirolimyia Vargas, 1950
- Mochlostyrax Dyar & Knab, 1906
- Molpemyia Theobald, 1910
- Mucidus Theobald, 1901
- Myxosquamus Theobald, 1909
- Myzomyia Blanchard, 1902
- Myzorhynchella Theobald, 1907
- Myzorhynchus Blanchard, 1902
- Neobironella Tenorio, 1977
- Neocellia Theobald, 1907
- Neochaoborus Edwards, 1930
- Neoculex Dyar, 1905
- Neoculicites Evenhuis, 1994
- Neomacleaya Theobald, 1907
- Neomelanoconion Theobald, 1907
- Neomyzomyia Theobald, 1910
- Neopecomyia Theobald, 1909
- Neosquamomyia Taylor, 1914
- Neotheobaldia Dobrotworsky, 1958
- Nicaromyia Broche & Rodriguez, 2001
- Nothoskusea Dumbleton, 1962
- Nyctomyia
- Nyssorhynchus Blanchard, 1902
- Nyssorrhynchus
- Ochlerotatus Lynch-Arribalzaga, 1891
- Oculeomyia Theobald, 1907
- Onirion Peyton & Harbach, 2000
- Opifex Hutton, 1902
- 直蚊属 Orthopodomyia Theobald, 1904(直脚蚊)
- Paleoculicis Poinar, Zavortink, Pike & Johnston, 2000
- Paraedes Edwards, 1934
- Pardomyia Theobald, 1907
- Patmarksia Reinert, Harbach & Kitching, 2006
- Pecomyia Theobald, 1905
- Pectinopalpus Theobald, 1909
- Pentemyia Dyar, 1919
- Petermattinglyius Reinert, Harbach & Kitching, 2009
- Phagomyia Edwards, 1905
- Phagomyia Theobald, 1905
- Phalangomyia Dyar & Knab, 1914
- Phenacomyia Harbach & Peyton, 1992
- Philodendromyia Theobald, 1907
- Phoniomyia Theobald, 1903
- Pneumaculex Dyar, 1905
- Polylepidomyia Theobald, 1905
- Polyleptiomyia Theobald, 1905
- Popea Ludlow, 1905
- Priscoculex Poinar et al., 2019
- Prosopolepis Lutz, 1905
- Protoculex Felt, 1904
- Protomacleaya Theobald, 1907
- Protomelanoconion Theobald, 1909
- Pseudarmigeres Stone & Knight, 1956
- Pseudocarrollia Theobald, 1910
- Pseudoculex Dyar, 1905
- Pseudoficalbia Theobald, 1912
- Pseudograbhamia Theobald, 1905
- Pseudograhamia Theobald, 1910
- Pseudoheptaphlebomyia Ventrillon, 1905
- Pseudohowardina Theobald, 1907
- Pseudoskusea Theobald, 1907
- Pseudotaeniorhynchus Theobald, 1911
- Pseudotheobaldia Theobald, 1907
- Pseudouranotaenia Theobald, 1905
- 鳞蚊属 Psorophora Robineau-Desvoidy, 1827
- Pyretophorus Blanchard, 1902
- Quasistegomyia Theobald, 1906
- Rachionotomyia Theobald, 1905
- Rachisoura Theobald, 1910
- Radioculex Theobald, 1908
- Rampamyia Reinert, Harbach & Kitching, 2006
- Ravenalites Doucet, 1950
- Reedomyia Ludlow, 1905
- Rossia Theobald, 1902
- Runchomyia Theobald, 1903
- Russellia Vargas, 1943
- Sabethes Robineau-Desvoidy, 1827
- Sabethinus Lutz, 1904
- Sabethoides Theobald, 1903
- Scutomyia Theobald, 1904
- Shannonesia Fonseca & Silva Ramos, 1940
- Shannoniana Lane & Cerqueira, 1942
- Shannoniella Fonseca & Silva Ramos, 1940
- Simondella Simond & Laveran, 1902
- Sinoaedes Gong & Lu, 1991
- Skeiromyia Leicester, 1908
- Skusea Theobald, 1903
- Squamomyia Theobald, 1910
- Stegoconops Lutz, 1905
- Stegomyia Theobald, 1901
- Stenoscutus Theobald, 1909
- Stethomyia Theobald, 1902
- Suaymyia Thurman, 1959
- Taeniorhynchus Lynch Arribálzaga, 1891
- Tanakaius Reinert, Harbach & Kitching, 2004
- Teromyia Leicester, 1908
- Tewarius Reinert, 2006
- Thaiomyia Bram, 1966
- Theobaldinella Blanchard, 1905
- Thomasina Newstead & Carter, 1911
- Tinolestes Coquillett, 1905
- 土蚊属 Topomyia Leicester, 1908(局限蚊)
- 巨蚊属 Toxorhynchites Theobald, 1901
- Triamyia Dyar, 1919
- Tricholeptomyia Dyar & Shannon, 1925
- Trichopronomyia Theobald, 1905
- Trichoprosopon Theobald, 1901
- Trichorhynchomyia Brunetti, 1912
- Trichorhynchus Theobald, 1905
- 翠蚊属 Tripteroides Giles, 1904(杵蚊)
- 尤蚊属 Udaya Thurman, 1954
- 小蚊属 Uranotaenia Lynch Arribálzaga, 1891(蓝带蚊)
- Vansomerenis Reinert, Harbach & Kitching, 2006
- Verrallina Theobald, 1903
- Worcesteria Banks, 1906
- Wyeomyia Theobald, 1901
- Zavortinkius Reinert, 1999
- Zeugnomyia Leicester, 1908
- Zinzala Zavortink, 1986
灭蚊
相册
-
正在吸血的蚊子。
-
绒蚊的细节。
参考文献
- ^ Borkent, A.; Grimaldi, D. A. The earliest fossil mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae), in mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber. Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 2004, 97 (5): 882–888. ISSN 0013-8746. doi:10.1603/0013-8746(2004)097[0882:TEFMDC]2.0.CO;2.
- ^ Mosquitoes of Michigan -Their Biology and Control. Michigan Mosquito Control Organization. 2013 [2013-07-27]. (原始内容存档于2013-03-30).
- ^ Gates, Bill. The Deadliest Animal in the World. [2018-05-04]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-12).
- ^ Would it be wrong to eradicate mosquitoes? – BBC News. BBC News. [2016-02-01]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-01) (英国英语).
- ^ 蚊子过冬有“绝招” 零度以上能活三到五个月. 江苏广电融媒体新闻中心. 2016-11-24 [2017-11-11]. (原始内容存档于2019-06-12).
- ^ Soghigian, John; Sither, Charles; Justi, Silvia Andrade; Morinaga, Gen; Cassel, Brian K.; Vitek, Christopher J.; Livdahl, Todd; Xia, Siyang; Gloria-Soria, Andrea; Powell, Jeffrey R.; Zavortink, Thomas; Hardy, Christopher M.; Burkett-Cadena, Nathan D.; Reeves, Lawrence E.; Wilkerson, Richard C.; Dunn, Robert R.; Yeates, David K.; Sallum, Maria Anice; Byrd, Brian D.; Trautwein, Michelle D.; Linton, Yvonne-Marie; Reiskind, Michael H.; Wiegmann, Brian M. Phylogenomics reveals the history of host use in mosquitoes. Nature Communications. 2023-10-06, 14 (1). doi:10.1038/s41467-023-41764-y.
- ^ Azar, D; Nel, A; Huang, D; Engel, MS. The earliest fossil mosquito.. Current biology : CB. 2023-12-04, 33 (23): 5240–5246.e2. PMID 38052162. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2023.10.047.
- ^ Onen, H; Luzala, MM; Kigozi, S; Sikumbili, RM; Muanga, CK; Zola, EN; Wendji, SN; Buya, AB; Balciunaitiene, A; Viškelis, J; Kaddumukasa, MA; Memvanga, PB. Mosquito-Borne Diseases and Their Control Strategies: An Overview Focused on Green Synthesized Plant-Based Metallic Nanoparticles.. Insects. 2023-02-23, 14 (3). PMID 36975906. doi:10.3390/insects14030221.
- ^ Taubes G. A mosquito bites back. The New York Times Magazine. 1977; 24 Aug:40-6
- ^ 蚊子是人类的顶级掠食者. www.solidot.org. [2019-08-26]. (原始内容存档于2019-08-26).
蚊子每年杀死了 70 万人。在现代人类 20 多万年的历史中,总共有 1080 亿人类在地球上生活过,其中近半是被蚊子杀死的。
- ^ Lee, Hobart; Halverson, Sara; Ezinwa, Ngozi. Mosquito-Borne Diseases. Primary Care: Clinics in Office Practice. 2018-09, 45 (3): 393–407 [2024-09-10]. doi:10.1016/j.pop.2018.05.001.
- ^ Franklinos, LHV; Jones, KE; Redding, DW; Abubakar, I. The effect of global change on mosquito-borne disease.. The Lancet. Infectious diseases. 2019-09, 19 (9): e302–e312. PMID 31227327. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30161-6.
- ^ 蚊子传播登革病毒的机制,陈维钧,“科学发展”第368期,2003年8月
- ^ Shell ER. Resurgence of a deadly disease. The Atlantic Monthly. 1997;Aug: 45-60
- ^ Global Malaria Programme (GMP),WHO
- ^ Mullen, Gary Richard; Durden, Lance A. Medical and veterinary entomology 3rd. London: Academic press, an imprint of Elsevier. : 261–325 [2024-09-10]. ISBN 978-0-12-814043-7. doi:10.1016/C2017-0-00210-0. (原始内容存档于2024-09-18) (英语).
- ^ Dany Azar, André Nel, Diying Huang and Michael S. Engel. 2023. The Earliest Fossil Mosquito. Current Biology. DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.10.047
- ^ 如何預防蚊子. 中部害虫管理中心(公司). 2013-04-12 [2013-07-27]. (原始内容存档于2020-09-20).
- ^ 養生常識:天然驅蚊法!蚊子最怕6種味道. 新华网. 2013-07-05 [2013-07-27]. (原始内容存档于2013-07-09).
- ^ 中国科学家释放 2 亿不育蚊子消灭了两个岛屿的蚊群. 科技行者. [2019-07-19]. (原始内容存档于2019-09-29).
参见
延伸阅读
[编]
外部链接
- 蚊子,你知道多少种? (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆),果壳网。
- 蚊子这么多,怎么有效的预防? (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆),佛系案内所。
- 开放目录项目中的“蚊”
- Mosquito Pest Control Information - National Pesticide Information Center(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- West Nile Virus Resource Guide - National Pesticide Information Center (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- Mosquitoes of Wisconsin (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- Biological Database for Anopheline Mosquitoes
- Database for Disease Vectors(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- Inland Floodwater mosquito Aedes vexans diagnostic photographs and taxonomy (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- Mosquitoes and mosquito repellents: a clinician’s guidePDF (151 KiB)