用户:Koala0090/番红花历史

番红花的花，被描绘成一簇簇的小红花，由两名妇女采集。零碎的米诺斯壁画，爱琴海圣托里尼岛屿亚克罗提利的出土物。

人类栽种与使用番红花的历史，可以追溯到三千五百年前，横跨多个文化、大陆与文明。番红花，一种以番红花（Crocus sativus）的干燥柱头制成的香料，自古一直是世界上最奢华的物质之一。番红花拥有丰富的有类胡萝卜素，有着略带苦味的口感，似干草的气味，与微微金属般的光泽，常用作食材调味、香水、染色与医药。

番红花属植物源自西南亚，于波斯境内或周边地区首次人为栽植。现今种植的番红花的野生株，可能源自原产于克里特岛或中亚的卡莱番红花（Crocus cartwrightianus），也可能是托马士番红花（C. thomasii）或帕拉斯番红花（C. pallasii）。目前栽植的番红花为突变的三倍体，无法自体授粉，雄蕊也无法产生可受孕的花粉。因此必须由母株进行分株繁殖或进行种间杂交。倘若番红花确实是由卡莱番红花突变而得，则其有可能源于青铜器时代末期克里特岛。

在驯化卡莱番红花及育种过程中，栽植者倾向选择柱头最长的品系。有关番红花最早记载于公元前七世纪的亚述植物学文献亚述巴尼拔所汇编的植物文献中。自此为人类四千年以来买卖及使用番红花的历史，展开了序幕，并用于治疗九十余种疾病。这支突变的番红花品系缓慢的传播，并遍及整个欧亚大陆和北非，甚至到达北美与大洋洲的部分地区。目前伊朗为番红花的主要产区，年产量高达全球产量的九成。

Etymology

The ultimate origin of the English word saffron is, like that of the cultivated saffron clone itself, of somewhat uncertain origin. It immediately stems from the Latin word safranum via the 12th-century Old French term safran. The French was borrowed from زَعْفَرَان (za'farān), ultimately from Akkadian azupiranu, "saffron". The Latin form safranum is also the source of the Catalan safrà, Italian zafferano, but Portuguese açafrão, and Spanish azafrán come from the Arabic az-zaferán. The Latin term crocus is certainly a Semitic loan word. It is adapted from the Aramaic form kurkema via the Arabic term kurkum and the Greek intermediate κρόκος krokos, which once again signifies "yellowish". The Sanskrit kunkumam might be in some way related to the Semitic term.

古典前期

克里特克诺索斯米诺斯壁画不精确的重建品，描绘一个男人（应是一只猴子）采收番红花的情景。

C. sativus.

番红花在古典前期（公元前八世纪至西元后三世纪）扮演着重要的角色。然而，希腊文化的番红花其实起源于青铜器时代。克诺索斯宫殿的米诺斯克里特的壁画记载了番红花的收成，描绘着年轻女子与猴子采集番红花花朵的情景。其中一个壁画遗迹位于希腊圣托里尼岛，亚克罗提利的赛斯特三号（"Xeste 3"）建筑。赛斯特三号壁画始于公元前1600–1700年间，另有各种其他的年代说，如公元前3000–1100年间，以及公元前十七世纪等。在他们的画中，希腊女神监督着花朵的采摘与柱头的挑选，以制成治疗的药材。同一址出土的另一壁画也做了一名妇女以番红花治愈其出血的脚的描画。这些壁画是最早纪录了人类将番红花用作草药的精密植物学画像。米诺斯在圣托里尼岛亚克罗提利种植番红花的居地，最后于公元前1645年至1500年间，被强大地震与并发的火山爆发摧毁。火山灰掩埋并保存了番红花壁画。

根据古希腊传说叙述，曾有一群粗犷的水手登船、经过了艰辛危险的航海，抵达了遥远的奇里乞亚，为了取得他们心目中最有价值的番红花。与番红花有关的希腊传说中，最有名的则是番红花与牛尾菜的悲剧故事：英俊青年番红花开始追求雅典附近树林里的木精灵牛尾菜。在一段短暂的田园诗般的恋情中，牛尾菜对番红花的殷勤感到心满意足，但很快的转变为厌烦。番红花持续的求爱，牛尾菜于是蛊惑番红花，施法让他变成一朵番红花朵，有着亮橙色的柱头，做为番红花对牛尾菜不朽热情的渺小象征。奥维德后来回忆起此悲剧和香料时写道：

Crocus and Smilax may be turn'd to flow'rs,
And the Curetes spring from bounteous show'rs
I pass a hundred legends stale, as these,
And with sweet novelty your taste to please.

——奥维德，《变形记》

“番红花采集者”壁画的详图，来自赛斯特三号建筑。此壁画是发现于亚克罗提利古米诺斯居地里，许多描绘有关番红花的壁画的其中之一。

对古代地中海一带的人们而言，奇里乞亚的沿海城市所罗易采集来的番红花最有价值，尤其是用于香水和药膏。希罗多德与老普林尼等名人则认为产自肥沃月弯、亚述与巴比伦的番红花，才是用于治疗肠胃与肾脏疾病的最上等良药。产于寇里坑恩洞穴与帕纳塞斯山的希腊番红花同样也变得知名。奇里乞亚番红花的颜色，在罗得岛的阿波罗尼奥斯的《阿尔戈船英雄记》中被用来作为比喻，而其香气则出现在马提亚尔的《隽语》中。

Cleopatra of late Ptolemaic Egypt used a quarter-cup of saffron in her warm baths, as she prized its colouring and cosmetic properties. She used it before encounters with men, trusting that saffron would render lovemaking yet more pleasurable. Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments: when stomach pains progressed to internal hemorrhaging, an Egyptian treatment consisted of saffron crocus seeds mixed and crushed together with aager-tree remnants, ox fat, coriander, and myrrh. This ointment or poultice was applied to the body. The physicians expected it to "[expel] blood through the mouth or rectum which resembles hog's blood when it is cooked". Urinary tract conditions were also treated with an oil-based emulsion of premature saffron flowers mixed with roasted beans; this was used topically on men. Women ingested a more complex preparation.

In Greco-Roman times saffron was widely traded across the Mediterranean by the Phoenicians. Their customers ranged from the perfumers of Rosetta, in Egypt, to physicians in Gaza to townsfolk in Rhodes, who wore pouches of saffron in order to mask the presence of malodorous fellow citizens during outings to the theatre. For the Greeks, saffron was widely associated with professional courtesans and retainers known as the hetaerae. Large dye works operating in Sidon and Tyre used saffron baths as a substitute; there, royal robes were triple-dipped in deep purple dyes; for the robes of royal pretenders and commoners, the last two dips were replaced with a saffron dip, which gave a less intense purple hue.

The ancient Greeks and Romans prized saffron as a perfume or deodoriser and scattered it about their public spaces: royal halls, courts, and amphitheatres alike. When Nero entered Rome they spread saffron along the streets; wealthy Romans partook of daily saffron baths. They used it as mascara, stirred saffron threads into their wines, cast it aloft in their halls and streets as a potpourri, and offered it to their deities. Roman colonists took saffron with them when they settled in southern Roman Gaul, where it was extensively cultivated until the AD 271 barbarian invasion of Italy. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th-century Moors or with the Avignon Papacy in the 14th century.

Middle Eastern and Persian

Safranbolu, Turkey.

Saffron-based pigments have been found in the prehistoric paints used to illustrate beasts in 50,000-year-old cave art found in modern-day Iraq, which was even then northwest of the Persian Empire. The Sumerians used saffron as an ingredient in their remedies and magical potions. Sumerians did not cultivate saffron. They gathered their stores from wild flowers, believing that divine intervention alone enables saffron's medicinal properties. Such evidence suggests that saffron was an article of long-distance trade before Crete's Minoan palace culture reached a peak in the 2nd millennium BC. Saffron was also honoured as a sweet-smelling spice over three millennia ago in the Hebrew Tanakh:

Your lips drop sweetness like honeycomb, my bride, syrup and milk are under your tongue, and your dress had the scent of Lebanon. Your cheeks are an orchard of pomegranates, an orchard full of rare fruits, spikenard and saffron, sweet cane and cinnamon.

——Song of Solomon

杰尔宾特和伊斯法罕的人们早在公元前10世纪就已经种植波斯番红花（Crocus sativus 'Hausknechtii'）。在当地波斯番红花线被交织成为古代波斯皇家地毯和葬礼罩。古波斯崇拜者用番红花作为他们对神的膜拜和供养。而且它可作为一个鲜艳的黄色染料，香水，或一种药。因此，将番红花线散布在床上并混入热茶就是治愈忧郁症的疗法。事实上，波斯番红花线，用于调味食品和茶，但却被大部分的外国人怀疑是药剂和春药。这些恐惧增长，使得旅客被预告不要吃番红花镶嵌的波斯菜。此外，沐浴很重要的一环是让波斯番红花与檀木在水中溶解，这样便可以纾解粗工的辛劳和在大太阳下的燥热。后来，亚历山大大帝和他的部队在他们开拓亚洲版图活动中大量使用波斯番红花。他们将番红花混合成茶，且食用染有番红花汁液的饭。亚历山大承袭先人居鲁士二世的智慧使用番红花来沐浴。就像居鲁士二世一样，亚历山大也相信它能治愈伤口，而且他屡试不爽。他甚至建议他位阶下的人们也可使用番红花沐浴。在希腊士兵回到马其顿后，他们还继续练习研究番红花的疗效。

东亚与南亚

The Gomateshwara monolith is anointed with saffron every twelve years by thousands of devotees during the Mahamastakabhisheka.

对于番红花是如何首次进入南亚与东亚纷争持续不断。其中有一个依据历史的解释是从波斯人的记录得知。根据那些纪录，专家推测这些番红花可能与其他香料一起被带到印度，因为波斯统治者极力保存他们新建的花园和公园。他们透过在波斯帝国移植新品种来达成目标。腓尼基人于公元前6世纪就开始利用多重贸易路线推销新的克什米尔番红花。一旦出售，克什米尔番红花就会被用于治疗忧郁症和织物染料上。

克什米尔传说在公元11或12世纪时，有两个外国巡回旅游的苏非修行者 Khwaja Masood Wali 和 Hazrat Sheikh Shariffudin 漫游到克什米尔，在旅途中生病了，因此恳求一个地方部落酋长来治疗他们的疾病。首领答应他们的要求后，这两位圣人以一个橙黄色的番红花球茎作为致谢的报酬，此后番红花才首次外传。至今，人们还是会在番红花收获的晚秋时节祈祷并向两位圣人表示感恩。印度帕姆波雷的番红花贸易村庄甚至还有一个专门为两人所建的金色圆顶神殿和坟茔。

然而，克什米尔诗人和学者穆罕默德（Mohammed Yusuf Teng）对此提出异议。他们说克什米尔人培育了番红花早已经超过了两千年。根据印度教的传说，黑天神每天都会用番红花在眉心标画上红点（又称“提拉克”）。

Ancient Chinese Buddhist accounts from the mula-sarvastivadin monastic order (or vinaya) present yet another account of saffron's arrival in India. According to legend, an arhat Indian Buddhist missionary by the name of Madhyântika (or Majjhantika) was sent to Kashmir in the 5th century BC. Upon his arrival he seemingly sowed the first Kashmiri saffron crop. From there, saffron use spread throughout the Indian subcontinent. In addition to use in foods, saffron stigmas were also soaked in water to yield a golden-yellow solution that was used as a fabric dye.

古中国佛教的解释是出自《根本说一切有部》修道院的规范或戒律（vinaya），因此关于番红花如何到达印度又有了另一种解释。传说一位印度佛教的传教士及罗汉名叫Madhyântika（或Majjhantika）在公元前5世纪被送往克什米尔了。

在他到达时，他有可能已播下了第一批克什米尔番红花作物。从那里开始，番红花的使用渐渐蔓延整个印度的其他地方。

除了用于食品之外，番红花的柱头也可浸泡在水中以产生用作织物染料的金黄色溶液。

which documents thousands of phytochemical-based medical treatments for various disorders. Yet around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to saffron as having a Kashmiri provenance. The Chinese medical expert Wan Zhen wrote that "[t]he habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha". Wan reflected on how saffron was used in his time: "The [saffron crocus] flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine."

一些历史学家认为番红花是被蒙古侵略者从波斯带来中国。中国古代医学文献中有提到番红花，其中包括《本草纲目》。

中国人指出约在公元3世纪有关于番红花的克什米尔起源。

中国医学专家万珍写道“番红花的产地在克什米尔，人们在那里种植，其主要目的是要供养佛陀。”

万珍花了他一生在研究番红花上，他说橙黄色的番红花几天后枯萎，然后就可取得番红花。它的价值来自制式的颜色黄色，它也可以使葡萄酒更加香醇。

In modern times saffron cultivation has spread to Afghanistan due to the efforts of the European Union and the United Kingdom. Together they promote saffron cultivation among impoverished and cash-strapped Afghan farmers as an ideal alternative to lucrative—and illicit—opium production.

现今番红花种植已蔓延到阿富汗，而这是由于欧洲联盟和联合王国共同努力的结果。

阿富汗农民一起促进了番红花种植，因为大部分的人都贫困和现金拮据。他们认为种植番红花的利润丰厚是非法鸦片的理想替代品。

中古时期的欧洲（600CE - 1450CE）

Medieval European illuminated manuscripts, such as this 13th-century depiction of Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Becket's assassination, often used saffron dyes to provide hues of yellow and orange.

Saffron cultivation in Europe declined steeply following the fall of the Roman Empire. For several centuries thereafter, saffron cultivation was rare or non-existent throughout Europe. This was reversed when Moorish civilisation spread from North Africa to settle the Iberian peninsula as well as parts of France and southern Italy. One theory states that Moors reintroduced saffron corms to the region around Poitiers after they lost the Battle of Tours to Charles Martel in AD 732. Two centuries after their conquest of Spain, Moors planted saffron throughout the southern provinces of Andalucia, Castile, La Mancha, and Valencia.

在罗马帝国没落后，欧洲番红花种植急剧减少。几个世纪后的欧洲，几乎很少或根本绝迹了。这样的情况跟摩尔人的（Moorish）文明从北非扩大版图到伊比利亚半岛、部分法国和意大利南部定居时恰恰相反。

一理论说摩尔人（Moors）在公元732年查尔斯·马特尔战役失败后重新把番红花球茎引入到普瓦捷的附近地区。

经过两个世纪摩尔人征服了西班牙，并在南部省份安达卢西亚（Andalucía）、卡斯蒂利亚（Castile）、拉曼查（La Mancha）和巴伦西亚（Valencia）等地种植番红花。

In France, saffron cultivation probably started during the 13th century. Crocus sativus was likely introduced from Spain and from the Middle-East by pilgrims, merchants, and Knights. Its first uses are documented in the south-west of the Kingdom around 1250. It is indeed unlikely that Kings and Religious didn't try growing Crocus sativus by that time: Saffron was rare, expensive, and demanded, and Crocus sativus could be farmed under France's latitudes. By the 14th century, the wide use of saffron for spicing and coloring food is documented in recipe books such as the "Viandier de Taillevent", written by the King's cook. And by the 15th century, local saffron farming is attested with taxes levied by the religious power, which reveal how important saffron crops must have been. For instance, in 1478, the saffron tax levied by the Bishop of Albi reached 1/12th of saffron production.

传说法国是从13世纪才开始种植番红花，而且那些番红花可能是由朝圣者、商人和骑士从西班牙和中东地区引进的。

约1250年西南部王国记载了人们第一次使用番红花的过程。

当时历代国王和修道士可能早已尝试种植番红花。番红花是如此的罕见、昂贵和高需求的，而且能够适应法国的纬度因此是可以被栽种的。

约14世纪时，国王的御厨的“Viandier de Taillevent”这本食谱摘录了番红花如何被广泛使用于调味和染色食物。

约15世纪时，宗教势力的课税征收，间接显示番红花作物的重要性。例如：1478年，阿尔比主教征收的番红花税是总番红花产量的1/12。

Saffron demand skyrocketed when the Black Death of 1347–1350 struck Europe. It was coveted by plague victims for medicinal purposes, and yet many of the farmers capable of growing it had died off. Large quantities of non-European saffron thus was imported. The finest saffron threads from Muslim lands were unavailable to Europeans because of hostilities stoked by the Crusades, so Rhodes and other places were key suppliers to central and northern Europe. Saffron was one of the contested points of hostility that flared between the declining landed gentry and upstart and increasingly wealthy merchants. The fourteen-week-long "Saffron War" was ignited when one 800磅（363千克） shipment of saffron was hijacked and stolen by nobles. The load, which was en route to the town of Basel, would at today's market prices be valued at more than 美元500,000. That shipment was eventually returned, but the wider 13th–century trade was subject to mass piracy. Thieves plying Mediterranean waters would often ignore gold stores and instead steal Venetian- and Genoan-marketed saffron bound for Europe. Wary of such unpleasantness, Basel planted its own corms. Several years of large and lucrative saffron harvests made Basel extremely prosperous compared to other European towns. Citizens sought to protect their status by outlawing the transport of corms out of the town; guards were posted to prevent thieves from picking flowers or digging up corms. Yet ten years later the saffron harvest had waned. Basel abandoned the crop.

黑死病（1347至1350）袭击欧洲时，番红花的需求大幅增长。受瘟疫感染的人们渴望透过番红花疗程而痊愈，但在背后这些辛勤耕种的农夫都相继过世。

因此才进口了大量非来自欧洲的番红花。

由于十字军东征的敌对状态使他们无法获得位在穆斯林领土最好的番红花。

由此可知罗得岛和其他地方是中欧和北欧的主要供应商。番红花是衰落的贵族们、突然崛起的暴发户和越来越富有的商人所争论的其中一项。

有800磅（363公斤）的番红花货物被贵族劫持并偷走时，这个为期十四周的“番红花战争”就开始了。

这个货物以今天市场价格估计超过了50万美元，它还被送去巴塞尔市（Basel）。

这批货物最终还是送回来了，但13世纪贸易更是受到大规模猖獗海盗的肆虐。

海盗不断穿梭来回地中海水域，但不曾下手黄金店，而只偷走威尼斯（Ventian）和热那亚（Genoan）市场上的欧洲番红花。

为了堤防这种不愉快的经验，巴塞尔人种植了自己的球茎。几年后的量产与丰收使巴塞尔比其他欧洲城镇更繁荣。

公民为了保护他们的安危，偷偷将球茎运出城。然而警卫被加派站岗，以防止盗贼采摘花或挖起那些球茎。出乎意料之外，十年后番红花收成已逐渐衰弱，巴塞尔人便放弃了作物。

The pivot of central European saffron trade moved to Nuremberg. The merchants of Venice continued their rule of the Mediterranean sea trade, trafficking varieties from Sicily, France and Spain, Austria, Crete and Greece, and the Ottoman Empire. Adulterated goods also made the rounds: those soaked in honey, mixed with marigold petals, or kept in damp cellars—all to add quick and cheap bulk. Irritated Nuremberg authorities passed the Safranschou code to de-louse the saffron trade. Adulterators were thus fined, imprisoned, and executed—by immolation. England was next to have its turn as a major producer. One theory has it that the crop spread to the coastal regions of eastern England in the 14th century AD during the reign of Edward III. In subsequent years saffron was fleetingly cultivated throughout England. Norfolk, Suffolk, and south Cambridgeshire were especially affected with corms. Rowland Parker provides an account of its cultivation in the village of Foxton during the 16th and 17th centuries, "usually by people holding a small amount of land"; an acre planted in saffron could yield a crop worth a kingly GB£6, making it "a very profitable crop, provided that plenty of unpaid labor was available; unpaid labor was one of the basic features of farming then and for another two centuries."

中欧番红花贸易的枢纽转移到了纽伦堡（Nuremberg）。威尼斯商人继续管理地中海贸易，与西西里（Sicily），法国（France）和西班牙（Spain），奥地利（Austria），克里特（Crete）、希腊（Greece），以及奥斯曼帝国等地有贸易往来。

商品都被参杂一些东西，例如：那些浸泡在蜂蜜里与万寿菊花瓣混合，或被保存在潮湿的地窖里，而这些东西只为了便捷和廉价散装卖出。纽伦堡当局透过Safranschou代码去查番红花贸易。

劣质品制造者因掺杂一事而被罚款、监禁和被宰杀式的处决，后来英国才成为最大生产国。

传说作物在爱德华三世统治期间（公元14世纪）蔓延到英格兰东部沿海地区。

接下来的几年，英国便大量种植番红花。

受到球茎影响最大的是诺福克（Norfolk）、萨福克（Suffolk）和南剑桥郡（south Cambridgeshire）等地。在16世纪和17世纪时，罗兰·帕克（Rowland Parker）提供一个账户给在福克斯（Foxton）顿村种植的人们，而那些人通常是持有少部分土地的人。

一英亩栽种番红花作物相当于6英镑，因此它是能赚取暴利的作物，而且有大量的无薪劳工，造成过去与未来两个世纪血汗劳工都过着如此贫困的生活。

In France, saffron production became very important in the 17th and 18th centuries, reaching a few tons. By then, saffron farming had spread throughout the entire Kingdom. Saffron was especially grown in Albigeois, Angoumois, Gascony, Gâtinais, Normandy, Périgord, Poitou, Provence, and Quercy. Its mysterious decline started during the 18th century, possibly due to pandemic fungal diseases destroying bulbs and crops, to particularly cold winters, and to competing market from the Mediterranean countries.

在17和18世纪的法国，番红花生产变得非常重要，可以吨计算。那时，番红花的种植已经遍布到整个国家。

番红花特别生长在Albigeois，Angoumois，Gascony，Gâtinais，诺曼底（Normandy），Périgord，普瓦特（Poitou），普罗旺斯（Provence）和Quercy。关于它如何衰落的谜有一说是18世纪期间，由于真菌大流行肆虐球茎和作物，特别是在寒冷的冬天，还有来自地中海国家的市场竞争。

In England, cultivation persisted only in the light, well-drained, and chalk-based soils of the north Essex countryside. The Essex town of Saffron Walden got its name as a saffron growing and trading centre; its name was originally Cheppinge Walden, and the culinary name change was effected to punctuate the importance of the crop to the townsfolk; the town's arms still feature blooms from the eponymous crocus. Yet as England emerged from the Middle Ages, rising puritanical sentiments and new conquests abroad endangered English saffron's use and cultivation. Puritanical partisans favoured increasingly austere, unadorned, and unspiced foods. Saffron was also a labor-intensive crop, which became an increasing disadvantage as wages and time opportunity costs rose. And finally, an influx of more exotic spices from the far East due to the resurgent spice trade meant that the English, as well as other Europeans, had many more—and cheaper—seasonings to dally over.

英国北埃塞克斯郡农村种植的条件为光线充足、排水良好和白垩土的土壤。在Essex镇有 “Saffron Walden”这个名字，因为这里正好是番红花生长和贸易的中心。

它最初的名字是“Cheppinge Walden”，然而烹饪名称的改变是为了强调作物对城镇居民的重要性，且城市中的军队更是与绽放的番红花同名。

此外，随着英国进入中古世纪，越来越多的清教徒的意见和新的征服活动威胁了英国番红花的使用和栽种。

清教徒党支持越来越朴素、未加装饰和未加工的食物。

番红花也是一个劳动密集型作物，随着工资和时间机会成本的上升，这种作物变得越来越不利。

最后，由于外地的香料重新流入，来自远东更多异国香料涌入意味着英国人以及其他欧洲人有许多更便宜的调味料可以选择。

This trend was documented by the Dean of Manchester, a Reverend William Herbert. He collected samples and compiled information on many aspects of the saffron crocus. He was concerned about the steady decline in saffron cultivation over the course of the 17th century and the dawn of the Industrial Revolution; the introduction in Europe of easily grown maize and potatoes, which steadily took over lands formerly flush with corms, did not help. In addition, the elite who traditionally comprised the bulk of the saffron market were now growing increasingly interested in such intriguing new arrivals as chocolate, coffee, tea, and vanilla. Only in the south of France or in Italy and Spain, where the saffron harvest was culturally primal, did significant cultivation prevail.

这种流行趋势由曼彻斯特院长威廉·赫伯特牧师记录下来。

他收集样品并汇集番红花多方面的信息。

他担忧在17世纪和工业革命的开端期间番红花的种植逐渐减少。

欧洲引进容易生长的玉米和马铃薯，虽然充分利用了以前种植球茎的土地，但却没有特别的效用。

此外，以前大部分番红花市场的精英们反而对巧克力、咖啡、茶和香草等新奇的舶来品越来越感兴趣。

只有在法国南部、意大利和西班牙，番红花的丰收是原始的，而且确实有种植成功过。

北美洲

A field of saffron crocuses.

Saffron made its way to the New World when thousands of Alsatian, German, and Swiss Anabaptists, Dunkards, and others fled religious persecution in Europe. They settled mainly in eastern Pennsylvania, in the Susquehanna River valley. These settlers, who became known as the Pennsylvania Dutch, were by 1730 widely cultivating saffron after corms were first brought to America—in a trunk. It was owned by German adherents of a Protestant church known as the Schwenkfelder Church. Schwenkfelders, as members were known, were great lovers of saffron, and had grown it back in Germany. Pennsylvania Dutch saffron was soon being successfully marketed to Spanish colonists in the Caribbean, while healthy demand elsewhere ensured that its listed price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was set equal to that of gold. 

在数千名阿尔萨斯人、德国人、瑞士再洗礼教派、兄弟会教派（Dunkards）和在欧洲的其他人逃离宗教迫害时，番红花逐渐流入新世界。他们主要住在宾夕法尼亚（Pennsylvania）东部的萨斯奎哈纳（Susquehanna）河谷。

这些居民还被称为宾夕法尼亚荷兰人，他们是1730年广泛培育番红花，随后便跟着球茎一起在车厢中先被运到美国。它由被称为Schwenkfelder教会的一个新教徒的教会所拥有（德国信徒所拥有的教会）。

众所皆知Schwenkfelders的成员是番红花的大宗爱好者，并在德国从新栽种。

宾夕法尼亚州荷兰番红花很快成功地销售给加勒比地区的西班牙殖民者。

因应其他地区的健康需求在费城订定公定价于表上，因此商品交易的价格等同于黄金。

However the War of 1812 destroyed many of the merchantmen that ferried American saffron abroad. Pennsylvanian saffron growers were afterwards left with surplus inventory, and trade with the Caribbean markets never recovered. Nevertheless, Pennsylvania Dutch growers developed many uses for the now abundant saffron in their own home cooking—cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes. Saffron cultivation survived into modern times principally in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania.

1812年的战争摧残了许多把美国番红花运到国外的商人。

宾夕法尼亚番红花种植者随后只剩下库存，但却未恢复与加勒比市场的贸易。

然而，宾夕法尼亚州的荷兰种植者开发了许多用现在丰富的番红花来做蛋糕、做面条、鸡肉或鳟鱼等菜肴。

特别在宾夕法尼亚州的兰开斯特区域，现今番红花还是一直被栽种。

参见

• 番红花贸易和用途

参考文献

书目

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• Dalby, A., Food in the Ancient World from A to Z, Routledge, 2003, ISBN 978-0-415-23259-3 
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• Humphries, J., The Essential Saffron Companion, Ten Speed Press, 1998, ISBN 978-1-58008-024-8 
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• McGee, H., On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen, Scribner, 2004, ISBN 978-0-684-80001-1 
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• Platon, N., Kritika Chronika, 1947 
• Russo, E.; Dreher, M. C.; Mathre, M. L., Women and Cannabis: Medicine, Science, and Sociology 1st, Psychology Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-7890-2101-4 
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期刊文献

• Caiola, M. G., Saffron Reproductive Biology, Acta Horticulturae 650 (ISHS), 2003, 650: 25–37 
• Deo, B., Growing Saffron—The World's Most Expensive Spice (PDF), Crop and Food Research (20) (New Zealand Institute for Crop and Food Research), 2003, (20) [2006-01-10], （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2005-12-27） 
• Ferrence, S. C.; Bendersky, G., Therapy with Saffron and the Goddess at Thera, Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 47 (2), 2004, 47 (2): 199–226, PMID 15259204, doi:10.1353/pbm.2004.0026 
• Ghorbani, M., The Efficiency of Saffron's Marketing Channel in Iran (PDF), World Applied Sciences Journal 4 (4), 2008, 4 (4): 523–527 [2011-10-03], ISSN 1818-4952 
• Rubio-Moraga, A.; Castillo-López, R.; Gómez-Gómez, L.; Ahrazem, O., Saffron is a Monomorphic Species as Revealed by RAPD, ISSR and Microsatellite Analyses, BMC Research Notes 2, 2009, 2: 189, PMC 2758891 , PMID 19772674, doi:10.1186/1756-0500-2-189 

其他

• Fotedar, S., Cultural Heritage of India: The Kashmiri Pandit Contribution, Vitasta 32 (1) (Kashmir Sabha of Kolkata), 1999, 32 (1) [2011-09-15] 
• Harper, D., Online Etymology Dictionary, 2001 [2011-09-12] 
• Hogan, C. M., Knossos Fieldnotes, The Modern Antiquarian, 2007 [2008-04-10] 
• Honan, W. H., Researchers Rewrite First Chapter for the History of Medicine, The New York Times, 2004 [2011-09-13] 
• Lak, D., Gathering Kashmir's Saffron, BBC News, 1998 [2011-09-12] 
• Pearce, F., Returning War-Torn Farmland to Productivity, New Scientist, 2005 [2011-09-13] 

延伸阅读

• Lemmel, K.; Schleif, C.; Schier, V., Katerina's Windows: Donation and Devotion, Art and Music, as Heard and Seen Through the Writings of a Birgittine Nun 1st, Pennsylvania State University Press, 200931 July 2009, ISBN 978-0-271-03369-3 
• Schier, V., Probing the Mystery of the Use of Saffron in Medieval Nunneries, The Senses and Society 5 (1), March 2010, 5 (1): 57–722010, doi:10.2752/174589310X12549020528176