User:Koala0090/番紅花歷史

番紅花的花，被描繪成一簇簇的小紅花，由兩名婦女採集。零碎的米諾斯壁畫，愛琴海聖托里尼島嶼亞克羅提利的出土物。

人類栽種與使用番紅花的歷史，可以追溯到三千五百年前，橫跨多個文化、大陸與文明。番紅花，一種以番紅花（Crocus sativus）的乾燥柱頭製成的香料，自古一直是世界上最奢華的物質之一。番紅花擁有豐富的有類胡蘿蔔素，有著略帶苦味的口感，似乾草的氣味，與微微金屬般的光澤，常用作食材調味、香水、染色與醫藥。

番紅花屬植物源自西南亞，於波斯境內或周邊地區首次人為栽植。現今種植的番紅花的野生株，可能源自原產於克里特島或中亞的卡萊番紅花（Crocus cartwrightianus），也可能是托馬士番紅花（C. thomasii）或帕拉斯番紅花（C. pallasii）。目前栽植的番紅花為突變的三倍體，無法自體授粉，雄蕊也無法產生可受孕的花粉。因此必須由母株進行分株繁殖或進行種間雜交。倘若番紅花確實是由卡萊番紅花突變而得，則其有可能源於青銅器時代末期克里特島。

在馴化卡萊番紅花及育種過程中，栽植者傾向選擇柱頭最長的品系。有關番紅花最早記載於西元前七世紀的亞述植物學文獻亞述巴尼拔所匯編的植物文獻中。自此為人類四千年以來買賣及使用番紅花的歷史，展開了序幕，並用於治療九十餘種疾病。這支突變的番紅花品系緩慢的傳播，並遍及整個歐亞大陸和北非，甚至到達北美與大洋洲的部分地區。目前伊朗為番紅花的主要產區，年產量高達全球產量的九成。

Etymology

The ultimate origin of the English word saffron is, like that of the cultivated saffron clone itself, of somewhat uncertain origin. It immediately stems from the Latin word safranum via the 12th-century Old French term safran. The French was borrowed from زَعْفَرَان (za'farān), ultimately from Akkadian azupiranu, "saffron". The Latin form safranum is also the source of the Catalan safrà, Italian zafferano, but Portuguese açafrão, and Spanish azafrán come from the Arabic az-zaferán. The Latin term crocus is certainly a Semitic loan word. It is adapted from the Aramaic form kurkema via the Arabic term kurkum and the Greek intermediate κρόκος krokos, which once again signifies "yellowish". The Sanskrit kunkumam might be in some way related to the Semitic term.

古典前期

克里特克諾索斯米諾斯壁畫不精確的重建品，描繪一個男人（應是一隻猴子）採收番紅花的情景。

C. sativus.

番紅花在古典前期（西元前八世紀至西元後三世紀）扮演著重要的角色。然而，希臘文化的番紅花其實起源於青銅器時代。克諾索斯宮殿的米諾斯克里特的壁畫記載了番紅花的收成，描繪著年輕女子與猴子採集番紅花花朵的情景。其中一個壁畫遺跡位於希臘聖托里尼島，亞克羅提利的賽斯特三號（"Xeste 3"）建築。賽斯特三號壁畫始於西元前1600–1700年間，另有各種其他的年代說，如西元前3000–1100年間，以及西元前十七世紀等。在他們的畫中，希臘女神監督著花朵的采摘與柱頭的挑選，以製成治療的藥材。同一址出土的另一壁畫也做了一名婦女以番紅花治癒其出血的腳的描畫。這些壁畫是最早紀錄了人類將番紅花用作草藥的精密植物學畫像。米諾斯在聖托里尼島亞克羅提利種植番紅花的居地，最後於西元前1645年至1500年間，被強大地震與併發的火山爆發摧毀。火山灰掩埋並保存了番紅花壁畫。

根據古希臘傳說敘述，曾有一群粗獷的水手登船、經過了艱辛危險的航海，抵達了遙遠的奇里乞亞，為了取得他們心目中最有價值的番紅花。與番紅花有關的希臘傳說中，最有名的則是番紅花與牛尾菜的悲劇故事：英俊青年番紅花開始追求雅典附近樹林裡的木精靈牛尾菜。在一段短暫的田園詩般的戀情中，牛尾菜對番紅花的殷勤感到心滿意足，但很快的轉變為厭煩。番紅花持續的求愛，牛尾菜於是蠱惑番紅花，施法讓他變成一朵番紅花朵，有著亮橙色的柱頭，做為番紅花對牛尾菜不朽熱情的渺小象徵。奧維德後來回憶起此悲劇和香料時寫道：

Crocus and Smilax may be turn'd to flow'rs,
And the Curetes spring from bounteous show'rs
I pass a hundred legends stale, as these,
And with sweet novelty your taste to please.

——奧維德，《变形记》

「番紅花採集者」壁畫的詳圖，來自賽斯特三號建築。此壁畫是發現於亞克羅提利古米諾斯居地裡，許多描繪有關番紅花的壁畫的其中之一。

對古代地中海一帶的人們而言，奇里乞亞的沿海城市所羅易採集來的番紅花最有價值，尤其是用於香水和藥膏。希羅多德與老普林尼等名人則認為產自肥沃月彎、亞述與巴比倫的番紅花，才是用於治療腸胃與腎臟疾病的最上等良藥。產於寇里坑恩洞穴與帕纳塞斯山的希臘番紅花同樣也變得知名。奇里乞亞番紅花的顏色，在羅得島的阿波羅尼奧斯的《阿爾戈船英雄記》中被用來作為比喻，而其香氣則出現在馬提亞爾的《雋語》中。

Cleopatra of late Ptolemaic Egypt used a quarter-cup of saffron in her warm baths, as she prized its colouring and cosmetic properties. She used it before encounters with men, trusting that saffron would render lovemaking yet more pleasurable. Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments: when stomach pains progressed to internal hemorrhaging, an Egyptian treatment consisted of saffron crocus seeds mixed and crushed together with aager-tree remnants, ox fat, coriander, and myrrh. This ointment or poultice was applied to the body. The physicians expected it to "[expel] blood through the mouth or rectum which resembles hog's blood when it is cooked". Urinary tract conditions were also treated with an oil-based emulsion of premature saffron flowers mixed with roasted beans; this was used topically on men. Women ingested a more complex preparation.

In Greco-Roman times saffron was widely traded across the Mediterranean by the Phoenicians. Their customers ranged from the perfumers of Rosetta, in Egypt, to physicians in Gaza to townsfolk in Rhodes, who wore pouches of saffron in order to mask the presence of malodorous fellow citizens during outings to the theatre. For the Greeks, saffron was widely associated with professional courtesans and retainers known as the hetaerae. Large dye works operating in Sidon and Tyre used saffron baths as a substitute; there, royal robes were triple-dipped in deep purple dyes; for the robes of royal pretenders and commoners, the last two dips were replaced with a saffron dip, which gave a less intense purple hue.

The ancient Greeks and Romans prized saffron as a perfume or deodoriser and scattered it about their public spaces: royal halls, courts, and amphitheatres alike. When Nero entered Rome they spread saffron along the streets; wealthy Romans partook of daily saffron baths. They used it as mascara, stirred saffron threads into their wines, cast it aloft in their halls and streets as a potpourri, and offered it to their deities. Roman colonists took saffron with them when they settled in southern Roman Gaul, where it was extensively cultivated until the AD 271 barbarian invasion of Italy. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th-century Moors or with the Avignon Papacy in the 14th century.

Middle Eastern and Persian

Safranbolu, Turkey.

Saffron-based pigments have been found in the prehistoric paints used to illustrate beasts in 50,000-year-old cave art found in modern-day Iraq, which was even then northwest of the Persian Empire. The Sumerians used saffron as an ingredient in their remedies and magical potions. Sumerians did not cultivate saffron. They gathered their stores from wild flowers, believing that divine intervention alone enables saffron's medicinal properties. Such evidence suggests that saffron was an article of long-distance trade before Crete's Minoan palace culture reached a peak in the 2nd millennium BC. Saffron was also honoured as a sweet-smelling spice over three millennia ago in the Hebrew Tanakh:

Your lips drop sweetness like honeycomb, my bride, syrup and milk are under your tongue, and your dress had the scent of Lebanon. Your cheeks are an orchard of pomegranates, an orchard full of rare fruits, spikenard and saffron, sweet cane and cinnamon.

——Song of Solomon

傑爾賓特和伊斯法罕的人們早在公元前10世紀就已經種植波斯番紅花（Crocus sativus 'Hausknechtii'）。在當地波斯番紅花線被交織成為古代波斯皇家地毯和葬禮罩。古波斯崇拜者用番紅花作為他們對神的膜拜和供養。而且它可作為一個鮮豔的黃色染料，香水，或一種藥。因此，將番紅花線散佈在床上並混入熱茶就是治癒憂鬱症的療法。事實上，波斯番紅花線，用於調味食品和茶，但卻被大部分的外國人懷疑是藥劑和春藥。這些恐懼增長，使得旅客被預告不要吃番紅花鑲嵌的波斯菜。此外，沐浴很重要的一環是讓波斯番紅花與檀木在水中溶解，這樣便可以紓解粗工的辛勞和在大太陽下的燥熱。後來，亞歷山大大帝和他的部隊在他們開拓亞洲版圖活動中大量使用波斯番紅花。他們將番紅花混合成茶，且食用染有番紅花汁液的飯。亞歷山大承襲先人居魯士二世的智慧使用番紅花來沐浴。就像居魯士二世一樣，亞歷山大也相信它能治愈傷口，而且他屢試不爽。他甚至建議他位階下的人們也可使用番紅花沐浴。在希臘士兵回到馬其頓後，他們還繼續練習研究番紅花的療效。

東亞與南亞

The Gomateshwara monolith is anointed with saffron every twelve years by thousands of devotees during the Mahamastakabhisheka.

對於番紅花是如何首次進入南亞與東亞紛爭持續不斷。其中有一個依據歷史的解釋是從波斯人的記錄得知。根據那些紀錄，專家推測這些番紅花可能與其他香料一起被帶到印度，因為波斯統治者極力保存他們新建的花園和公園。他們透過在波斯帝國移植新品種來達成目標。腓尼基人於公元前6世紀就開始利用多重貿易路線推銷新的克什米爾番紅花。一旦出售，克什米爾番紅花就會被用於治療憂鬱症和織物染料上。

克什米爾傳說在公元11或12世紀時，有兩個外國巡迴旅遊的蘇非修行者 Khwaja Masood Wali 和 Hazrat Sheikh Shariffudin 漫游到克什米爾，在旅途中生病了，因此懇求一個地方部落酋長來治療他們的疾病。首領答應他們的要求後，這兩位聖人以一個橙黃色的番紅花球莖作為致謝的報酬，此後番紅花才首次外傳。至今，人們還是會在番紅花收穫的晚秋時節祈禱並向兩位聖人表示感恩。印度帕姆波雷的番紅花貿易村莊甚至還有一個專門為兩人所建的金色圓頂神殿和墳塋。

然而，克什米爾詩人和學者穆罕默德（Mohammed Yusuf Teng）對此提出異議。他們說克什米爾人培育了番紅花早已經超過了兩千年。根據印度教的傳說，黑天神每天都會用番紅花在眉心標畫上紅點（又稱「提拉克」）。

Ancient Chinese Buddhist accounts from the mula-sarvastivadin monastic order (or vinaya) present yet another account of saffron's arrival in India. According to legend, an arhat Indian Buddhist missionary by the name of Madhyântika (or Majjhantika) was sent to Kashmir in the 5th century BC. Upon his arrival he seemingly sowed the first Kashmiri saffron crop. From there, saffron use spread throughout the Indian subcontinent. In addition to use in foods, saffron stigmas were also soaked in water to yield a golden-yellow solution that was used as a fabric dye.

古中國佛教的解釋是出自《根本說一切有部》修道院的規範或戒律（vinaya），因此關於番紅花如何到達印度又有了另一種解釋。傳說一位印度佛教的傳教士及羅漢名叫Madhyântika（或Majjhantika）在公元前5世紀被送往克什米爾了。

在他到達時，他有可能已播下了第一批克什米爾番紅花作物。從那裡開始，番紅花的使用漸漸蔓延整個印度的其他地方。

除了用於食品之外，番紅花的柱頭也可浸泡在水中以產生用作織物染料的金黃色溶液。

which documents thousands of phytochemical-based medical treatments for various disorders. Yet around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to saffron as having a Kashmiri provenance. The Chinese medical expert Wan Zhen wrote that "[t]he habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha". Wan reflected on how saffron was used in his time: "The [saffron crocus] flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine."

一些歷史學家認為番紅花是被蒙古侵略者從波斯帶來中國。中國古代醫學文獻中有提到番紅花，其中包括《本草綱目》。

中國人指出約在公元3世紀有關於番紅花的克什米爾起源。

中國醫學專家萬珍寫道「番紅花的產地在克什米爾，人們在那裡種植，其主要目的是要供養佛陀。」

萬珍花了他一生在研究番紅花上，他說橙黃色的番紅花幾天后枯萎，然後就可取得番紅花。它的價值來自制式的顏色黃色，它也可以使葡萄酒更加香醇。

In modern times saffron cultivation has spread to Afghanistan due to the efforts of the European Union and the United Kingdom. Together they promote saffron cultivation among impoverished and cash-strapped Afghan farmers as an ideal alternative to lucrative—and illicit—opium production.

現今番紅花種植已蔓延到阿富汗，而這是由於歐洲聯盟和聯合王國共同努力的結果。

阿富汗農民一起促進了番紅花種植，因為大部分的人都貧困和現金拮据。他們認為種植番紅花的利潤豐厚是非法鴉片的理想替代品。

中古時期的歐洲（600CE - 1450CE）

Medieval European illuminated manuscripts, such as this 13th-century depiction of Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Becket's assassination, often used saffron dyes to provide hues of yellow and orange.

Saffron cultivation in Europe declined steeply following the fall of the Roman Empire. For several centuries thereafter, saffron cultivation was rare or non-existent throughout Europe. This was reversed when Moorish civilisation spread from North Africa to settle the Iberian peninsula as well as parts of France and southern Italy. One theory states that Moors reintroduced saffron corms to the region around Poitiers after they lost the Battle of Tours to Charles Martel in AD 732. Two centuries after their conquest of Spain, Moors planted saffron throughout the southern provinces of Andalucia, Castile, La Mancha, and Valencia.

在羅馬帝國沒落後，歐洲番紅花種植急劇減少。幾個世紀後的歐洲，幾乎很少或根本絕跡了。這樣的情況跟摩爾人的（Moorish）文明從北非擴大版圖到伊比利亞半島、部份法國和意大利南部定居時恰恰相反。

一理論說摩爾人（Moors）在公元732年查爾斯·馬特爾戰役失敗後重新把番紅花球莖引入到普瓦捷的附近地區。

經過兩個世紀摩爾人征服了西班牙，並在南部省份安達盧西亞（Andalucía）、卡斯蒂利亞（Castile）、拉曼查（La Mancha）和瓦倫西亞（Valencia）等地種植番紅花。

In France, saffron cultivation probably started during the 13th century. Crocus sativus was likely introduced from Spain and from the Middle-East by pilgrims, merchants, and Knights. Its first uses are documented in the south-west of the Kingdom around 1250. It is indeed unlikely that Kings and Religious didn't try growing Crocus sativus by that time: Saffron was rare, expensive, and demanded, and Crocus sativus could be farmed under France's latitudes. By the 14th century, the wide use of saffron for spicing and coloring food is documented in recipe books such as the "Viandier de Taillevent", written by the King's cook. And by the 15th century, local saffron farming is attested with taxes levied by the religious power, which reveal how important saffron crops must have been. For instance, in 1478, the saffron tax levied by the Bishop of Albi reached 1/12th of saffron production.

傳說法國是從13世紀才開始種植番紅花，而且那些番紅花可能是由朝聖者、商人和騎士從西班牙和中東地區引進的。

約1250年西南部王國記載了人們第一次使用番紅花的過程。

當時歷代國王和修道士可能早已嘗試種植番紅花。番紅花是如此的罕見、昂貴和高需求的，而且能夠適應法國的緯度因此是可以被栽種的。

約14世紀時，國王的御廚的「Viandier de Taillevent」這本食譜摘錄了番紅花如何被廣泛使用於調味和染色食物。

約15世紀時，宗教勢力的課稅徵收，間接顯示番紅花作物的重要性。例如：1478年，阿爾比主教徵收的番紅花稅是總番紅花產量的1/12。

Saffron demand skyrocketed when the Black Death of 1347–1350 struck Europe. It was coveted by plague victims for medicinal purposes, and yet many of the farmers capable of growing it had died off. Large quantities of non-European saffron thus was imported. The finest saffron threads from Muslim lands were unavailable to Europeans because of hostilities stoked by the Crusades, so Rhodes and other places were key suppliers to central and northern Europe. Saffron was one of the contested points of hostility that flared between the declining landed gentry and upstart and increasingly wealthy merchants. The fourteen-week-long "Saffron War" was ignited when one 800磅（363公斤） shipment of saffron was hijacked and stolen by nobles. The load, which was en route to the town of Basel, would at today's market prices be valued at more than 美元500,000. That shipment was eventually returned, but the wider 13th–century trade was subject to mass piracy. Thieves plying Mediterranean waters would often ignore gold stores and instead steal Venetian- and Genoan-marketed saffron bound for Europe. Wary of such unpleasantness, Basel planted its own corms. Several years of large and lucrative saffron harvests made Basel extremely prosperous compared to other European towns. Citizens sought to protect their status by outlawing the transport of corms out of the town; guards were posted to prevent thieves from picking flowers or digging up corms. Yet ten years later the saffron harvest had waned. Basel abandoned the crop.

黑死病（1347至1350）襲擊歐洲時，番紅花的需求大幅增長。受瘟疫感染的人們渴望透過番紅花療程而痊癒，但在背後這些辛勤耕種的農夫都相繼過世。

因此才進口了大量非來自歐洲的番紅花。

由於十字軍東征的敵對狀態使他們無法獲得位在穆斯林領土最好的番紅花。

由此可知羅得島和其他地方是中歐和北歐的主要供應商。番紅花是衰落的貴族們、突然崛起的暴發戶和越來越富有的商人所爭論的其中一項。

有800磅（363公斤）的番紅花貨物被貴族劫持並偷走時，這個為期十四周的「番紅花戰爭」就開始了。

這個貨物以今天市場價格估計超過了50萬美元，它還被送去巴塞爾市（Basel）。

這批貨物最終還是送回來了，但13世紀貿易更是受到大規模猖獗海盜的肆虐。

海盜不斷穿梭來回地中海水域，但不曾下手黃金店，而只偷走威尼斯（Ventian）和熱那亞（Genoan）市場上的歐洲番紅花。

為了堤防這種不愉快的經驗，巴塞爾人種植了自己的球莖。幾年後的量產與豐收使巴塞爾比其他歐洲城鎮更繁榮。

公民為了保護他們的安危，偷偷將球莖運出城。然而警衛被加派站崗，以防止盜賊採摘花或挖起那些球莖。出乎意料之外，十年後番紅花收成已逐漸衰弱，巴塞爾人便放棄了作物。

The pivot of central European saffron trade moved to Nuremberg. The merchants of Venice continued their rule of the Mediterranean sea trade, trafficking varieties from Sicily, France and Spain, Austria, Crete and Greece, and the Ottoman Empire. Adulterated goods also made the rounds: those soaked in honey, mixed with marigold petals, or kept in damp cellars—all to add quick and cheap bulk. Irritated Nuremberg authorities passed the Safranschou code to de-louse the saffron trade. Adulterators were thus fined, imprisoned, and executed—by immolation. England was next to have its turn as a major producer. One theory has it that the crop spread to the coastal regions of eastern England in the 14th century AD during the reign of Edward III. In subsequent years saffron was fleetingly cultivated throughout England. Norfolk, Suffolk, and south Cambridgeshire were especially affected with corms. Rowland Parker provides an account of its cultivation in the village of Foxton during the 16th and 17th centuries, "usually by people holding a small amount of land"; an acre planted in saffron could yield a crop worth a kingly GB£6, making it "a very profitable crop, provided that plenty of unpaid labor was available; unpaid labor was one of the basic features of farming then and for another two centuries."

中歐番紅花貿易的樞紐轉移到了紐倫堡（Nuremberg）。威尼斯商人繼續管理地中海貿易，與西西里（Sicily），法國（France）和西班牙（Spain），奧地利（Austria），克里特（Crete）、希臘（Greece），以及奧斯曼帝國等地有貿易往來。

商品都被參雜一些東西，例如：那些浸泡在蜂蜜裡與萬壽菊花瓣混合，或被保存在潮濕的地窖裡，而這些東西只為了便捷和廉價散裝賣出。紐倫堡當局透過Safranschou代碼去查番紅花貿易。

劣質品製造者因摻雜一事而被罰款、監禁和被宰殺式的處決，後來英國才成為最大生產國。

傳說作物在愛德華三世統治期間（公元14世紀）蔓延到英格蘭東部沿海地區。

接下來的幾年，英國便大量種植番紅花。

受到球莖影響最大的是諾福克（Norfolk）、薩福克（Suffolk）和南劍橋郡（south Cambridgeshire）等地。在16世紀和17世紀時，羅蘭·帕克（Rowland Parker）提供一個帳戶給在福克斯（Foxton）頓村種植的人們，而那些人通常是持有少部分土地的人。

一英畝栽種番紅花作物相當於6英鎊，因此它是能賺取暴利的作物，而且有大量的無薪勞工，造成過去與未來兩個世紀血汗勞工都過著如此貧困的生活。

In France, saffron production became very important in the 17th and 18th centuries, reaching a few tons. By then, saffron farming had spread throughout the entire Kingdom. Saffron was especially grown in Albigeois, Angoumois, Gascony, Gâtinais, Normandy, Périgord, Poitou, Provence, and Quercy. Its mysterious decline started during the 18th century, possibly due to pandemic fungal diseases destroying bulbs and crops, to particularly cold winters, and to competing market from the Mediterranean countries.

在17和18世紀的法國，番紅花生產變得非常重要，可以噸計算。那時，番紅花的種植已經遍佈到整個國家。

番紅花特別生長在Albigeois，Angoumois，Gascony，Gâtinais，諾曼第（Normandy），Périgord，普瓦特（Poitou），普羅旺斯（Provence）和Quercy。關於它如何衰落的謎有一說是18世紀期間，由於真菌大流行肆虐球莖和作物，特別是在寒冷的冬天，還有來自地中海國家的市場競爭。

In England, cultivation persisted only in the light, well-drained, and chalk-based soils of the north Essex countryside. The Essex town of Saffron Walden got its name as a saffron growing and trading centre; its name was originally Cheppinge Walden, and the culinary name change was effected to punctuate the importance of the crop to the townsfolk; the town's arms still feature blooms from the eponymous crocus. Yet as England emerged from the Middle Ages, rising puritanical sentiments and new conquests abroad endangered English saffron's use and cultivation. Puritanical partisans favoured increasingly austere, unadorned, and unspiced foods. Saffron was also a labor-intensive crop, which became an increasing disadvantage as wages and time opportunity costs rose. And finally, an influx of more exotic spices from the far East due to the resurgent spice trade meant that the English, as well as other Europeans, had many more—and cheaper—seasonings to dally over.

英國北埃塞克斯郡農村種植的條件為光線充足、排水良好和白堊土的土壤。在Essex鎮有 「Saffron Walden」這個名字，因為這裡正好是番紅花生長和貿易的中心。

它最初的名字是「Cheppinge Walden」，然而烹飪名稱的改變是為了強調作物對城鎮居民的重要性，且城市中的軍隊更是與綻放的番紅花同名。

此外，隨著英國進入中古世紀，越來越多的清教徒的意見和新的征服活動威脅了英國番紅花的使用和栽種。

清教徒黨支持越來越樸素、未加裝飾和未加工的食物。

番紅花也是一個勞動密集型作物，隨著工資和時間機會成本的上升，這種作物變得越來越不利。

最後，由於外地的香料重新流入，來自遠東更多異國香料湧入意味著英國人以及其他歐洲人有許多更便宜的調味料可以選擇。

This trend was documented by the Dean of Manchester, a Reverend William Herbert. He collected samples and compiled information on many aspects of the saffron crocus. He was concerned about the steady decline in saffron cultivation over the course of the 17th century and the dawn of the Industrial Revolution; the introduction in Europe of easily grown maize and potatoes, which steadily took over lands formerly flush with corms, did not help. In addition, the elite who traditionally comprised the bulk of the saffron market were now growing increasingly interested in such intriguing new arrivals as chocolate, coffee, tea, and vanilla. Only in the south of France or in Italy and Spain, where the saffron harvest was culturally primal, did significant cultivation prevail.

這種流行趨勢由曼徹斯特院長威廉·赫伯特牧師記錄下來。

他收集樣品並彙集番紅花多方面的信息。

他擔憂在17世紀和工業革命的開端期間番紅花的種植逐漸減少。

歐洲引進容易生長的玉米和馬鈴薯，雖然充分利用了以前種植球莖的土地，但卻沒有特別的效用。

此外，以前大部分番紅花市場的精英們反而對巧克力、咖啡、茶和香草等新奇的舶來品越來越感興趣。

只有在法國南部、意大利和西班牙，番紅花的豐收是原始的，而且確實有種植成功過。

北美洲

A field of saffron crocuses.

Saffron made its way to the New World when thousands of Alsatian, German, and Swiss Anabaptists, Dunkards, and others fled religious persecution in Europe. They settled mainly in eastern Pennsylvania, in the Susquehanna River valley. These settlers, who became known as the Pennsylvania Dutch, were by 1730 widely cultivating saffron after corms were first brought to America—in a trunk. It was owned by German adherents of a Protestant church known as the Schwenkfelder Church. Schwenkfelders, as members were known, were great lovers of saffron, and had grown it back in Germany. Pennsylvania Dutch saffron was soon being successfully marketed to Spanish colonists in the Caribbean, while healthy demand elsewhere ensured that its listed price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was set equal to that of gold. 

在數千名阿爾薩斯人、德國人、瑞士再洗禮教派、兄弟會教派（Dunkards）和在歐洲的其他人逃離宗教迫害時，番紅花逐漸流入新世界。他們主要住在賓夕法尼亞（Pennsylvania）東部的薩斯奎哈納（Susquehanna）河谷。

這些居民還被稱為賓夕法尼亞荷蘭人，他們是1730年廣泛培育番紅花，隨後便跟著球莖一起在車廂中先被運到美國。它由被稱為Schwenkfelder教會的一個新教徒的教會所擁有（德國信徒所擁有的教會）。

眾所皆知Schwenkfelders的成員是番紅花的大宗愛好者，並在德國從新栽種。

賓夕法尼亞州荷蘭番紅花很快成功地銷售給加勒比地區的西班牙殖民者。

因應其他地區的健康需求在費城訂定公定價於表上，因此商品交易的價格等同於黃金。

However the War of 1812 destroyed many of the merchantmen that ferried American saffron abroad. Pennsylvanian saffron growers were afterwards left with surplus inventory, and trade with the Caribbean markets never recovered. Nevertheless, Pennsylvania Dutch growers developed many uses for the now abundant saffron in their own home cooking—cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes. Saffron cultivation survived into modern times principally in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania.

1812年的戰爭摧殘了許多把美國番紅花運到國外的商人。

賓夕法尼亞番紅花種植者隨後只剩下庫存，但卻未恢復與加勒比市場的貿易。

然而，賓夕法尼亞州的荷蘭種植者開發了許多用現在豐富的番紅花來做蛋糕、做麵條、雞肉或鱒魚等菜餚。

特別在賓夕法尼亞州的蘭開斯特區域，現今番紅花還是一直被栽種。

參見

• 番紅花貿易和用途

參考文獻

書目

• Asbaghi, A., Persische Lehnwörter im Arabischen, Otto Harrassowitz, 1988, ISBN 978-3-447-02757-1 
• Cairns, F., Sextus Propertius: The Augustan Elegist, Cambridge University Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0-521-86457-2 
• Dalby, A., Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices 1st, University of California Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0-520-23674-5 
• Dalby, A., Food in the Ancient World from A to Z, Routledge, 2003, ISBN 978-0-415-23259-3 
• Francese, C., Ancient Rome in So Many Words, Hippocrene Books, 2007, ISBN 978-0-7818-1153-8 
• Grigg, D. B., The Agricultural Systems of the World 1st, Cambridge University Press, 1974, ISBN 978-0-521-09843-4 
• Hill, T., The Contemporary Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices: Seasonings for the Global Kitchen 1st, Wiley, 2004, ISBN 978-0-471-21423-6 
• Hood, S., The Arts in Prehistoric Greece, Yale University Press, 1992, ISBN 978-0-300-05287-9 
• Humphries, J., The Essential Saffron Companion, Ten Speed Press, 1998, ISBN 978-1-58008-024-8 
• Kafi, M.; Koocheki, A.; Rashed, M. H.; Nassiri, M. (eds.), Saffron (Crocus sativus) Production and Processing 1st, Science Publishers, 2006, ISBN 978-1-57808-427-2 
• Klein, E., A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Hebrew Language for Readers of English, Jerusalem: Carta, 1987, ISBN 978-965-220-093-8 
• Lachaud, C.M., La Bible du Safranier. Tout savoir sur le Crocus sativus et sur le Safran, In Libro Veritas, 2012, ISBN 978-2-7466-4412-0 
• McGee, H., On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen, Scribner, 2004, ISBN 978-0-684-80001-1 
• Negbi, M. (ed.), Saffron: Crocus sativus L., CRC Press, 1999, ISBN 978-90-5702-394-1 
• Parker, R., The Common Stream, Paladin, 1976, ISBN 978-0-586-08253-9 
• Platon, N., Kritika Chronika, 1947 
• Russo, E.; Dreher, M. C.; Mathre, M. L., Women and Cannabis: Medicine, Science, and Sociology 1st, Psychology Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-7890-2101-4 
• Willard, P., Secrets of Saffron: The Vagabond Life of the World's Most Seductive Spice, Beacon Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0-8070-5009-5 

期刊文獻

• Caiola, M. G., Saffron Reproductive Biology, Acta Horticulturae 650 (ISHS), 2003, 650: 25–37 
• Deo, B., Growing Saffron—The World's Most Expensive Spice (PDF), Crop and Food Research (20) (New Zealand Institute for Crop and Food Research), 2003, (20) [2006-01-10], （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2005-12-27） 
• Ferrence, S. C.; Bendersky, G., Therapy with Saffron and the Goddess at Thera, Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 47 (2), 2004, 47 (2): 199–226, PMID 15259204, doi:10.1353/pbm.2004.0026 
• Ghorbani, M., The Efficiency of Saffron's Marketing Channel in Iran (PDF), World Applied Sciences Journal 4 (4), 2008, 4 (4): 523–527 [2011-10-03], ISSN 1818-4952 
• Rubio-Moraga, A.; Castillo-López, R.; Gómez-Gómez, L.; Ahrazem, O., Saffron is a Monomorphic Species as Revealed by RAPD, ISSR and Microsatellite Analyses, BMC Research Notes 2, 2009, 2: 189, PMC 2758891 , PMID 19772674, doi:10.1186/1756-0500-2-189 

其他

• Fotedar, S., Cultural Heritage of India: The Kashmiri Pandit Contribution, Vitasta 32 (1) (Kashmir Sabha of Kolkata), 1999, 32 (1) [2011-09-15] 
• Harper, D., Online Etymology Dictionary, 2001 [2011-09-12] 
• Hogan, C. M., Knossos Fieldnotes, The Modern Antiquarian, 2007 [2008-04-10] 
• Honan, W. H., Researchers Rewrite First Chapter for the History of Medicine, The New York Times, 2004 [2011-09-13] 
• Lak, D., Gathering Kashmir's Saffron, BBC News, 1998 [2011-09-12] 
• Pearce, F., Returning War-Torn Farmland to Productivity, New Scientist, 2005 [2011-09-13] 

延伸閱讀

• Lemmel, K.; Schleif, C.; Schier, V., Katerina's Windows: Donation and Devotion, Art and Music, as Heard and Seen Through the Writings of a Birgittine Nun 1st, Pennsylvania State University Press, 200931 July 2009, ISBN 978-0-271-03369-3 
• Schier, V., Probing the Mystery of the Use of Saffron in Medieval Nunneries, The Senses and Society 5 (1), March 2010, 5 (1): 57–722010, doi:10.2752/174589310X12549020528176